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THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  NEBRASKA 

DEPARTMENT  OF 

POLITICAL  SCIENCE  AND  SOCIOLOGY 


GENERAL  SOCIOLOGY 

An  Analytical  Reference  Syllabus 


BY 

GEORGE  ELLIOTT  HOWARD,  Ph.  D. 

Head  Professor  of  Political  Science  and  Sociology 


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THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  NEBRASKA 

DEPARTMENT  OF 

POLITICAL  SCIENCE  AND  SOCIOLOGY 


GENERAL  SOCIOLOGY 

An  Analytical  Reference  Syllabus 


BY 


GEORGE  ELLIOTT  HOWARD,  Ph.  D. 

Head  Professor  of  Political  Science  and  Sociology 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  UNIVERSITY 

1907 


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•  •         •  .    *  •  I 


•     •  •       '      • 


PREFATORY  NOTE. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  outline  I  am  especially  indebted 
to  Professor  Edward  Alsworth  Ross,  who  has  generously 
placed  at  my  disposal  his  notes  and  bibliography.  The  treat- 
ment of  the  "social  processes"  is  developed  according  to  the 
suggestion  of  the  "Map  of  the  Sociological  Field,"  published 
in  his  Foundations  of  Sociology,  p.  98. 

George  Elliott  Howard. 
Lincoln,  August  5,  1907. 


^^  •_•    M    ir\  r\  f\ 


ANALYTICAL  INDEX. 


Pages 
Introduction:    General  Character  of  the  Course 7 

Chapter  I.     Characteristics  of  Sociological  Science 8-21 

I.  Definition  and  Province  of   Sociology 8-12 

II.  Place  of  Sociology  in  the  "Hierarchy"  of  the  Sciences.  .12-14 

III.  Relation  of  Sociology  to  the  Other  Social  Sciences 14-17 

IV.  Methodology  'of  Sociological  Study 17-19 

V.  The  Unit  of  Investigation  in  Sociology : 19-21 

Chapter  II.    Elements  of  Society:  The  Social  Population 22-31 

VI.  Size,   Density,   and  Concentration  of  Population 22-24 

VII.  Composition   of    the    Population 24-26 

VIII.  Movement  of  the  Population 27-31 

Ch.\pter  III.     The  Factors  or  Causes  of  Social  Phenomena 32-46 

IX.  Nature  of  the  Social  Forces 32-35 

X.  Classification  of  Social  Forces 35-38 

XI.  Desires  and  Human  Achievement 38-39 

XII.  Evolution  of   Desires 40-43 

Xin.  Influence    of   Environment 43-46 

Chapter  IV.     The  Social  Processes 47-66 

XIV.  Preliminary  Processes  or    Potential  Socialization 47-50 

XV.  Genesis    of    Society 50-54 

XVI.  Association    54-59 

XVII.  Domination    and    Exploitation 59-61 

XVIII.  Domination  and   Forcible  Assimilation 62-63 

XIX.  Opposition :    References    63-64 

XX.  Stratification :    References    64-66 

Select   Bibliography    67-86 


GENERAL  SOCIOLOGY. 


INTRODUCTION. 


GENERAL  CHARACTER  OP  THE  COURSE. 

I.  Scope  of  the  Course. 

1.  General   character  of  the  study   of   sociology   as  dis- 

tinguished from  other  sciences. 

2.  The  course  deals  specially  with  the  principles  of  pure 

sociology;  but  it  includes  a  summary  discussion 
of  the  principles  of  applied  sociology. 
3..  While  primarily  aiming  at  a  mastery  of  sociological 
science,  the  course  will  have  a  utilitarian  or  practical 
purpose:  the  application  of  science  to  the  improve- 
ment of  social  life. 

II.  Plan  of  the  Course;  Method. 

1.  The  Analytical  reference  syllabus:  contains  an  outline 

of  the  lectures,  with  topical  citation  of  the  literature. 

2.  Assigned  texts,  with  "written  reviews";  use  of  note- 

book for  readings  on  syllabus  and  for  thesis. 

3.  Research  work :  each  member  of  the  class  should  select 

a  subject  for  independent  investigation.  For  an  ac- 
ceptable thesis  one  hour  of  credit  is  given,  if  the 
student  registers  for  Course  Al. 

4.  The  '^Reserve  Section"  in  the  Reading  Room. 

III.  Select    Literature    Available    for    the    Course    (see    the 
"Select  Bibliography"  at  end  of  this  pamphlet). 


(7) 


CHAPTER  I. 

CHARACTERISTICS  OF  SOCIOLOGICAL  SCIENCE. 


Section  I.     Definition  and  Province  of  Sociology. 

I.  Definitions. 

1.  Comte:  regards  the  ''social  science"  as  "social  physics^' 

{Positive  Philosophy,  I,  22)  ;  his  "social  dynamics" 
(see  Ward,  Pure  Sociology,  223-24;  idem,  Applied 
Sociology,  8-9). 

2.  Spencer :  the  science  of  sociology  has  to  give  an  account 

of  all  the  phenomena  that  result  from  the  combined 
action  of  social  units  {Principles  of  Sociology,  I,  437. 
Cf.  Ward,  "Herbert  Spencer's  Sociology,"  in  Iiide- 
pendent,  March  31,  1904). 

3.  Giddings:    "An    attempt    to    account    for    the    origin, 

growth,  structure,  and  activities  of  society  by  the 
operation  of  physical,  vital,  and  ps3^chical  causes, 
working  together  in  a  process  of  evolution'* 
{Principles,  8.  Compare  iMd.,  419)  ;  the  "science  of 
social  elements  and  first  principles"  {Principles,  33). 

4.  Dealey  and  Ward :  "The  study  of  human  association" 

{Text  Book,  2). 

5.  Ward:    Pure   Sociology   is   a   "treatment   of  the   phe- 

nomena and  laws  of  society  as  it  is"  {Pure  Sociology , 
4).  The  "science  of  society,  or  the  science  of  social 
phenomena"  {Pop.  Sc.  Monthly,  June,  1902,  p.  113)  ; 
"simply  a  scientific  inquiry  into  the  actual  conditions 
of  society"  {Applied  Sociology,  3). 

6.  Small:  "Sociology  is  the  science  of  the'social  process" 

{General  Sociology,  3.5.  For  his  other  definitions, 
see  iMd.,  3,  23,  35;  and  A.  J.  S.,  V,  500). 

7.  Stuckenberg:  The  "science  of  society"  (Sociology,  I,  1). 

8.  Tarde:  The  science  of  society,  or  of  social  phenomena 

{Laws  of  Imitation,  1,  passim). 

9.  Sumner:   "Science  of  the  life  of  society"    {Collected 

Essays,  77). 

(8) 


CHARACTERISTICS.  H 

10.  Cooley:  The  "science  of  personal  intercourse  in  its 
primary  and  secondary  aspects"  (Human  Noture  and 
the  Social  Order,  101). 

11.  Ross:  The  "science  of  social  phenomena"  (see  Founda- 

tions, 6,  91;  A.  J.  S.,  IX,  201  ff.). 
a.  Is  so  broad  a.  definition  necessary?     Is  description 

better  than  definition? 
1).  What  are  "social  phenomena?"' 

12.  Other  definitions  (for  enumerations,  see  Ward,  "Con- 

temporary SociologT,"  in  A.  J.  S.,  YII ;  Small,  Gen- 
eral Sociology,  23-39;  idem,  "What  is  Sociology''?  in 
A.  J.  S.,  VIII,  468-77;  idem,  in  A.  J.  8.,  V,  506  ff. ; 
Blackmar,  Elements  of  Sociology,  12  ff. ;  Branford, 
"Origin  and  Use  of  the  Word  'Sociology,'  "  in  A.  J.  S.. 
IX,  145ff.). 

II.  Preliminary    View    of   the    Conceptions    and    Systems    of 
Sociology.    The  Subject  Matter  of  Sociology  is  according  to 

1.  Tarde :     Imitation,  opposition,  adaptation   (see  Davis, 

Gahriel  Tarde  (1906)  ;  and  Tarde,  Social  Laws 
(1897). 

2.  Gumplowicz,  Novicow,  Loria,  Vaccaro :  The  struggle  or 

conflict  between  classes,  groups,  races,  societies  (see 
Ross,  Foundations,  272-90). 

3.  Ratzenhofer :   Society  as  a  process  of  adjustment  by 

conflict  and  by  co-operation  between  associated  indi- 
viduals (Small,  General  Sociology,   181-394). 

4.  Simmel :  The  "function  of  socialization";  or  the  "Modes 

or  forms  of  association  into  groups :  social  morphol- 
ogy" (see  his  "Problem  of  Sociology,"  in  Annals,  1895, 
VI,  412-23 ;  and  idem,  "Persistence  of  Social  Groups," 
in  A.  J.  S.,  Ill,  662  ff.  Cf.  Ross,  Foundations,  4-5; 
Davis,  Gahriel  Tarde,  101-102). 

5.  Greef:  "Contract"  as  distinguishing  mark  of  society. 

A  type  of  the  "classifying"  sociologists. 

6.  Kropotkin :  "Mutual  aid." 

7.  Durkheim :    "Division    of    social    labor" ;   "social   con- 

straint." 

8.  Giddings :  "Consciousness  of  Kind"  (Principles,  17  ff. ; 

idem.  Inductive  Sociology,  91  ff. ;  idem,  Descriptive 
and  Historical  Sociology,  275  ff.). 


10  GENERAL  SOCIOLOGY. 

9.  Ward:  ''Human  achievement"   {Pure  Sociology,  15-44; 

Dealey  and  Ward,  32-47.     Compare  the  criticism  of 
Ross,  Foundations,  5.) 
a.  Emphasis  of  function,  not  structure:  pragmatism. 
6.  Law  of  difference  between  organic  and  social  evolu- 
tion.    "The   environment   transforms   the   animal, 
while  man  transforms  the  environment."     Compare 
the  law  of  difference  between  cosmic  and  organic 
evolution  (Ward,  in  Pop.  8c.  Monthly,  XI,  672-82). 

c.  What    is    "material    civilization"?      "Matter    is    dy- 

namic." 

d.  Definition  and  forms  of  achievement. 

10,  The  earlier  so-called  "Organicists,"  among  whom  are 

Spencer,   Schiiffie,   Lillienfeld,   Roberty:    Sociology   is 
the  science  of  the  "social  organism" ;  of  "society  re- 
garded as  a  whole  composed  of  definitely  arranged 
parts"  (Small,  General  Sociology,  07-179;  Ross,  Foun- 
dations, 1,  71  ff.,  256  ff.). 
a.  Relative  sterility  of  sociology  based  on  biological  and 
physical  analogies  (see  Patten,  "Failure  of  Biologic 
Sociology,"  in  Annals,  1894,  IV,  919-47;  and  com- 
pare Small,  in  ibid.,  1895,  V,  740-46 ;   Small   and 
Vincent,  Introduction,  87-96;   Stuckenberg,   I,   32; 
Ross,    Foundations,    1    ff.,    154-56,    and    Index    at 
"organism" ;     Reid,     "Biological     Foundations     of 
Sociology,"  in  A.  J.  S.,  XI,  532-54). 
h.  Is  the  theory  of  the  "social  organism"  without  scien- 
tific value?     Is  it  adopted  by  Ward?   (see  the  de- 
fence of  the  use  of  biological  analogies  by  Small, 
General  Sociology,  74  ff.  ;'and  compare  Spencer,  in 
Westminster  Revieiv,  N.  S.,  XVII  (1860)  ;  Ratzen- 
hofer,   Sociologische   Erkenntniss,   165;    Blackmar, 
Elements,  16   ff.;   Giddings,  Principles,  8  ff.,  399; 
id&m,  Inductive  Sociology,  29,  182  ff. ;  Ward,  Pure 
Sociology,    565;    Wells,    "Social    Darwinism,"    in 
A.  S.  S.,  I,  117  ff.). 

e.  What  is  a  "society"?   (Simmel,  in  Annals,  VI,  422; 

Hayes,  in  A.  J.  S.,  X,  625 ;  Small,  General  Sociology. 
405,  115  ff.  (Spencer's  view),  183  ff.,  632  (Tarde's 
view)  ;  Ward,  Pure  Sociology,  565 ;  Giddings,  Ele- 
ments, 6;  Fairbanks,  2-3;  Gumplowicz,  Grundriss, 


CHARACTERISTICS.  11 

139  ft'.,  or  in  the  translation,  136  ff. ;  Giddings,  In- 
ductive Sociology,  6;  Stuckenberg,  I,  1  ff.  (descrip- 
tion) ;  .Cooley,  1  ff.,  84,  passim;  Tarde,  Laws  of 
Imitation,  cliap.  iii;  59-88;  Spencer,  Principles  of 
Sociology,  I,  447  ff. ;  Adams,  in  A.  J.  8.,  X,  208-27). 
d.  Sociology  must  concern  itself  especially  with  man- 
to-man  relations  or  associations  (this  point  is  best 
treated  by  Cooley,  Human  Nature  and  the  Social 
Order;  see  particularly  pp.  1-13,  79-101). 

1)  The  social  person  is  a  "psychic  fact";  a  "group  of 

sentiments  attached  to  some  symbol." 

2)  Society    "in    its    immediate   aspect    is   a   relation 

among  personal  ideas." 

III.  Divisions  of  Sociology. 

1.  It  is  distinguished  (by  Ward)  as: 

a.  Pure  sociology:  theoretical;  objective;  seeks  to  es- 
tablish the  principles  of  the  science. 

6.  Applied  sociology:  practical;  subjective;  seeks  to 
establish  the  principles  according  to  which  the 
sociological  "arts"  or  activities  may  be  organized 
(see  Ward,  Pure  Sociology,  chap,  i;  Dealey  and 
Ward.  chap,  i ;  Henderson,  "Scope  of  Social  Tech- 
nology," in  A.  J.  S.,  VI,  465). 

2.  When  social  mechanics  or  the  social  forces  are  empha- 

sized, sociology  is  either : 
a.  Social  statics :  embracing  especially  social  structure 

or  institutions;  or 
h.  Social    dynamics     (kinetics)  :    embracing    the    phe- 
nomena of  change,  movement. 

But  these  are  really  divisions  of  "social  mechanics" 
(see  Ward,  "Static  and  Dynamic  Sociology,"  in  Pol.  Sc. 
Quarterly,  X  (1895),  203  ff . ;  idem,,  Pure  Sociology,  3-7, 
169  ff. ;  Dealey  and  Ward,  159  ff. ;  especially  Ross,  Foun- 
dations, chap,  viii;  and  the  criticism  of  Giddings, 
Principles,  57  ff.  Cf.  also  Blackmar,  Elements,  21-2; 
Small  and  Vincent,  66  ff, ;  Giddings,  Theory  of  Soci- 
ology, 18;  Stuckenberg,  I,  42-47;  Fairbanks,  34  ff.). 

REFERENCES. 

Ross,  Foundations,  chap,  i,  3  ff. ;  Dealey  and  Ward,  chap,  i;  Ward, 
Pure  Sociology,  chaps,  i,  ii,  iii.  3-44;  Giddings,  Principles,  chaps,  i,  11, 
3-51;  idem.  "Concepts  and  Methods  of  Sociology,"  in  A.  J.  8..  X,  161  ff.; 


12  GENERAL  SOCIOLOGY. 

idem,  in  Congress  of  Arts  and  Science,  V,  800-812;  especially  idem, 
Descriptive  and  Historical  Sociology,  4-64;  Blackmar,  Elements,  chap, 
i,  3-38;  Fairbanks,  Introduction  to  Sociology,  1-17;  Small,  General  So- 
ciology, 3-35,  65  f£.;  idem,  "Subject  Matter  of  Sociology,"  in  ibid.,  X, 
281  ff.;  idem,  "Scope  of  Sociology,"  nine  articles  in  A.  J.  S.,  Jan.,  1900- 
July,  1904;  Stuckenberg,  Sociology,  I,  1-33;  Greef,  Introduction,  I,  1-30; 
Hayes,  "Sociological  Construction  Lines,"  in  A.  J.  S.,  X,  623  ff.,  750  ff., 
XI,  26  ff.,  623  f£.,  XII,  45  ff.;  Simmel,  "The  Problem  of  Sociology,"  in 
Annals,  VI,  412-23;   and  the  references  in  the  outline  above. 

For  further  discussion  of  various  systems  and  conceptions  of  So- 
ciology,'see  Barth,  Die  Philosophie  der  Geschichte  als  Sociologie  (1897), 
Part  I;  Ward,  "Contemporary  Sociology,"  in  A.  J.  S.,  VII,  475-500, 
629-58,  749-62,  analyzing  twelve  systems;  and  the  lively  discussion  of 
Vincent,  "Varieties  of  Sociology,"  in  A.  J.  8.,  XII,  1-10;  Simmel,  "The 
Sociology  of  Conflict,"  in  A.  J.  S.,  IX,  490  ff.,  672  ff.,  793  ff.;  Lloyd, 
"The  Organic  Theory  of  Society,"  in  A.  J.  S.,  VI,  577  ff.;  Allin,  "The 
Basis  of  Sociality,"  in  A.  J.  S.,  VIII,  75  ff.  (a  defence  of  Spencer's 
organic  concept);  Ratzenhofer,  Sociologische  Ertienntniss.  1-2;  espe- 
cially Carver,  Sociology  and  Social  Progress,  Part  I,  15  ff. 


Section  II.     Place  of  Sociology  in  the  So-called  Hierarchy 

OF  THE  Sciences. 

I.  What  is  a  Science? 

1.  ^'Methodized  Knowledge'-  relating  to  the  laws  of  phe- 

nomena. 

2.  Therefore  it  is  the  domain  of  forces  (see  Ward,  Pure 

Sociology,  40). 

3.  It   rests  on   "faith"'   in   the  universality   of   causation 

(Ward,  Pure  tiociology,  6;  White,  in  Pop.  8c. 
Monthly,  II.  730-39;  Starcke,  in  Rev.  International 
de  Sociologie,  January  1898,  p.  17). 

4.  Does  not  consist  in  the  "discovery  of  facts"    (Ward, 

Pure  Sociology,  6). 

5.  May  be  either  "pure"  or  "applied":    definitions? 

II.  Classification  and  Filiation  of  the  Sciences  (Comte,  Posi- 
tive PhiJosophy,  II,  1.5-27,  29.5  ff.,  passim;  Spencer,  in 
Essays:  Scientific  and  Political,  II,  78  ff. ;  idem.  Recent 
Discussions,  06-70;  Ward,  Pure  Sociology,  05-96;  idem, 
Dynamic  Sociology,  I,  chaps,  i,  ii,  especially  143-49,  on 
Comte  and  Spencer;  idem,  in  Science,  February  21,  1896; 
Dealey  and  Ward.  7-15;  Giddings,  Principles  of  Sociology, 
45-51;  Greef,  Introduction,  5;  idem,  Lois  Sociologiques,  1-35; 
Limanowski,  "La  Classification  des  Sciences  et  la  Socio- 
logie," in  Rev.  Int.  de  Sociologie,  July,  1894;  Carver,  15-64). 


CHARACTERISTICS.  13 

1.  The    logical    or    synoptical    classification    of    Herbert 

Spencer;  Ward's  criticism. 

2.  Auguste  Comte's  '^hierarchy"  of  the  sciences,  being  a 

genetic    (tocological)    or  serial  classification.     Place 
of  psychology    (cerebral   or  transcendental   biology) 
in  his  scheme?     Of  mathematics?    (Comte,   I,  20-27, 
28  ff.;  Ward,  Applied  Sociologij,  304-307,  310-11,  104; 
idejn,  Outlines  of  Sociology,  122  fif. ;  idem,  in  A.  J.  S., 
1,  742  flf.,  VII,  634-35;  idem,  Pure  Sociology,  90). 
a.  Implies  filiation,   not  strict  hierarchical   subordina- 
tion :  the  phenomena  which  these  sciences  present 
"diminish  in  generality  and  increase  in  complexity" 
in  the  ascending  scale, 
&.  Implies  that  in  their  evolution  each  higher  science 
is  the  product  or  creation  of  the  preceding  (see  III, 
below). 
III.  Scientific   Results   of  Filiation    (Ward,   Pure  Sociology, 
chap,  v;  Dealey  and  Ward,  chap.  ii). 

1.  Illustrated  by  the  analogy  of  sympodial  development  in 

Botany:  Social  evolution  is  sympodial. 
ff.  Definition  of  "specialization." 
h.  Definition  of  "evolution." 

2.  Creative  synthesis. 

fl.  Chemical  synthesis. 

h.  Art  ideals:  art  aims  at  the  improvement  of  imperfect 
nature;  creative  imagination;  scientific  imagina- 
tion ;  relation  to  imitation. 

c.  Social   ideals: 

1)  Why  the  artist  is  apt  to  be  a  reformer? 

2)  The  poetic  idea :   it  is   "a  homogeneous  undiffer- 

entiated truth" ;  poesy  and  prophecy. 

d.  Poesis:  a  form  of  creative  synthesis. 

1)  Aesthetic  creation:  aims  at  the  ideal;  how  differs 

from  "telesis." 

2)  Inventive  creation :  aims  at  the  useful ;  value  of 

scientific  imagination. 

e.  Genesis :  the  creative  synthesis  of  nature. 

1)  Acts  without  an  ideal;  "organic"  generation. 

2)  Dependence  of  the  higher  upon  the  lower  sciences 

(Ward,  Pure  Sociology,  90-91). 
3)   Social  consciousness  or  collective  mind  a  product 
of  "spontaneous  creative  synthesis." 


14  GENERAL  SOCIOLOGY. 

4.  The  hierarchy  of  the  synthetic  creations  of  nature  (see 

table    in    Ward,    Pure    Sociology,    94;    Dealey    and 
Ward,  57). 

5.  Sociology  the  highest  of  the  sciences. 
a.  Depends  on  the  physical  sciences. 

6.  Danger  of  relying  upon  analogies  of  the  physical  and 
other  sciences;  the  "social  organism"  theory  dis- 
credited (see  the  criticism  of  Ross,  Foundations, 
41-70;  also  Section  I  of  the  syllabus). 

c.  Has  the  characteristics  of  a  science. 

1)  The    domain    of    forces    and    laws    (Ward,    Pure 

Sociology,  46). 

2)  A  well  differentiated  subject  matter. 

3)  How  a  science  advances  (Ward,  Pure  Sociology, 

chap.  ii). 

Section    III.     The   Relation    of    Sociology    to   the    Other 

Social  Sciences. 

I.  Enumeration  of  the  Social  Sciences  (see  a  list  in  Blackmar, 
Elements,  29-30;  and  compare  Ward,  in  A.  J.  S.,  VII,  634- 
35). 

II.  Relation  to  History  (Ross,  Foundations,  81-84,  180-81; 
Small,  General  Sociology,  11-18,  44-62;  Tarde,  Laics  of  Imi- 
tation, 8-9,  chap,  iv,  89-139;  Ward,  Pure  Sociology,  13,  14, 
15,  18,  20,  55-58,  62;  idem,  Applied  Sociology,  40,  82,  234. 
311-12;  Dealey  and  Ward,  13-14,  28-29;  Giddings,  Principles, 
28,  54  ff.,  66,  71,  302  ff. ;  idem.  Inductive  Sociology,  8;  Wells, 
in  Am.  Sociological  Society,  Puhlications,  I,  118). 

1.  The  philosophy  of  history  is  not  sociology   (so  accord- 

ing to  Barth,  Die  Pliilosopliie  der  Geschichte  als  So- 
'  oiologie) ;  but  sociology  is  pointing  the  way  to  a 
sounder  philosophy  of  history ;  various  conceptions  of 
history  (see  Barth  as  cited;  and  the  summary  by 
Small,'  44-62.    Cf.  Vincent,  in  A.  J.  S.,  XII,  4  flf.). 

2.  By  broadening  its  province  and  deepening  its  meaning, 

history  is  drawing  nearer  to  sociology. 
a.  To  a  greater  and  greater  extent   the  two   sciences 

deal  with  homogeneous  materials. 
6.  The  extreme  modern   conception  of  history   is  that 

of  Lamprecht     (see  his  paper  in  Congress  or  Arts 


CHARACTERISTICS.  15 

and  Science,  II,  111-124;  idem,  What  Is  History? 
(1905)  ;  and  Dow,  in  American  Historical  Review, 
III,  431  ff.). 

1)  Lamprecht's  phases  of  evolution. 

2)  His    definition :      ''History    is   priinaril}-    a    socio- 

psj'chological  science." 

3)  The    other    so-called    "social    sciences"  are  also 

"mental  sciences,"  with  historj^  as  a  "universal 

foundation." 
c.  Is  history  concerned  merely  with  facts  or  isolated 
events;  or  is  it  governed  by  "laws"?  (see  the  criti- 
cism   by    Ross,    Foundations,    81-84,    180-181;    and 
those  of  Ward,  Small,  and  Tarde,  above  cited). 

III.  Relation  to  Economics  (Ross,  Foundations,  25-27,  29-40; 
Giddings,  Principles,  45,  50,  51,  67  fif. ;  idem,  "Relation  of 
Sociology'  to  Economics,"  in  Am.  Ec.  Ass.,  Piiblications,  X, 
No.  3;  Ward,  in  A.  J.  S.,  YII,  493  fif . ;  Giddings,  "The  Eco- 
nomic Ages,"  in  Pol.  8c.  Quart.,  XVI,  193-221;  idem,  "The 
Economic  Significance  of  Culture,"  in  Pol.  Sc.  Quart., 
XVIII,  449-61;  Small,  General  Sociology,  18-22;  idem,  "Re- 
lation Between  Sociology  and  the  Other  Social  Sciences," 
in  A.  J.  S.,  XII,  23  ff.;  "A  Rejoinder,"  by  Hoxie,  in  A.  J.  S'., 

XII,  739  ff. ;  answered  by  Small,  "Are  the  Social  Sciences 
Answerable  to  Common  Principles  of  Method"?  in  A.  J.  S., 

XIII,  1-19). 

1.  The  most   independent  and   well-defined  of  the   social 

sciences. 
a.  Rests  especially  on  three  natural  desires  or  traits: 

1)  Desire  for  wealth:   involving  hunger,   want,  love 

of  bodily  ease   (Ross,  op.  cit.,  25  ff.). 

2)  Aversion  to  labor. 

3)  Reluctance  to  postpone  present  enjoyment. 

&.  The  economics  of  consumption  of  wealth  is  closely 
allied  to  sociology. 

2,  Examples    of    sociological    problems    arising    in    eco- 

nomics   (see   Ross,    "Sociological    Frontiers   of   Eco- 
nomics," in  Foundations,  29-40). 

IV.  Relation  to  Political  Science  (Ross,  19-22;  Garner,  in  A. 
J.  S.,  XII,  344  ff.). 

1.  Political  science  is  concerned  especially  with  the  state, 
the    chief    "purposive    organization"    of  the  "social 


16  GENERAL  SOCIOLOGY. 

constitution"  (Compare  Giddings,  Priiiciples,  174  ff. ; 
Ward,  Pure  Sociologij,  206  fif.,   549  ff.;   Dealey  and 
Ward,  292  ff.,  and  Index  at  "State";  Spencer,  Frm- 
ciple8,  I,  437-43). 
a.  As  an  art  or  "normative"  science  (Boss,  20). 
h.  As  a  science  of  the  phenomena  of  government :  very 
closely  related  to  sociology;   social  regulation. 
2.  Chief  social  forces  revealed  in  the  evolution   of  gov- 
ernment. 

V.  Eelation  to  Comparative  Jurisprudence. 

1.  Law  as  a  part  of  the  social  regulative  system. 

2.  Social  forces  involved :  genesis  of  legal  ideas ;  historical 

jurisprudence. 

VI.  Relation  to  Ethics  (Ross,  17-19;  Ward,  Pure  Sociology, 
418  ff..  Index;  idem,  Psychic  Factors,  102  ff. ;  idem,  Applied 
Sociology,  317-18,  326,  84,  287;  Small,  General  Sociology, 
653  ff.).  '  • 

1.  Failure  of  the  old  ethics. 

2.  Ethics  is  in  fact  a  part  of  sociology;   significance  of 

"social  ethics." 

VII.  Fundamental  Relation  to  Psychology  (Thomas,  "Prov- 
ince of  Social  Psychology,"  in  A.  J.  S.,  X,  445  ff. ;  Ross,  "Pres- 
ent Problems  of  Social  Psychology,"  in  A.  J.  S.,  X,  456  ff. ; 
the  same  two  papers  m  Congress  of  Arts  and  Science,  V, 
860  ff. ;  Ward,  Psychic  Factors). 

VIII.  Relation  to  Other  Sciences:  Comparative  Religion,  Aes- 
thetics, noetics,  ethnology,  anthropology,  genetics,  eu- 
genics, etc. 

IX.  Generalization  as  to  the  Place  and  Rank  of  Sociology 
Among  the  Social  Sciences  (see  tables  in  Giddings,  Prin- 
ciples, 49;   Blackmar,  29,  31). 

1.  Sociology  is  emerging  as  a  distinct  science  with  its  own 

proper  field  of  research ;  but  the  social  sciences  are 
interdependent. 

2.  Sociology   is  not  an   inclusive  science,   embracing  the 

other  social  sciences  as  mere  branches  or  divisions 
(contrary  to  Spencer). 

3.  Sociology  is  the  highest  of  the  social  sciences,  the  mas- 

ter science;  and,  as  the  science  of  social  phenomena, 
of  social  elements,  principles,  and  laws,  it  is  the  "in- 


CHARACTERISTICS.  17 

elusive  social  science''   (compare  Ross,  Foundations, 
chap,   i;   Giddings,  Principles,  27  flf.,  33   fif. ;   Ward, 
Pure  Sociology,  90-91,  67-G9;  Dealey  and  Ward,  54). 
X.  Suggested   Practical    Rule  of   Specialization :     No   Fixed 
Limits  need  be  set  as  to  the  degTce  in  which  the  overlapping 
of  the  departmental  areas  of  the  social  sciences  is  permis- 
sible. 

1.  Perhaps   such   overlapping   should    be    in    direct  ratio 

to  the  intensiveness  of  the  particular  study  or  inves- 
tigation. 

2.  Perhaps,  as  a  working  guide  it  may  be  said  that  the 

results  (laws,  generalizations,  truths)  obtained  in 
each  science  are  available  in  all;  while  the  processes 
are  not;  though  even  in  the  latter  respect  a  fixed  limit 
would  often  prove  a  hindrance  to  the  free  handling 
of  materials. 

REFERENCES. 

Ross,  Foundations,  8-40,  81-84,  180-81;  Giddings,  Principles,  21-51; 
idem,  "Relation  of  Sociology  to  Other  Scientific  Studies,"  in  Journal 
of  Social  Science,  Nov.,  1894;  idem,  "Sociology  and  the  Abstract 
Sciences,"  in  Annals,  V  (1895),  746-53;  idem,  "Relation  of  Sociology 
to  Economics,"  in  American  Economic  Association,  Publications,  X, 
No.  3;  idem,  in  ibid.,  Ill,  No.  1;  idem,  in  Annals,  I,  No.  1;  Small, 
General  Sociology,  44-62;  Hadley,  "Relation  Between  Economics  and 
Politics,"  in  Am.  Ec.  Asso.,  Economic  Studies,  IV,  No.  1;  Howerth, 
"Present  Condition  of  Sociology  in  the  U.  S.,"  in  Annals,  V,  260-69; 
Patten,  "Relation  of  Economics  to  Sociology,"  in  Annals,  V,  577-83; 
same,  in  Am.  Ec.  Asso.,  Publications.  X,  No.  3;  idem,  Relation  of 
Sociology  to  Psychology;  Stuckenberg,  Sociology,  I,  34-42;  Worms,  "La 
Sociologie  et  I'Economie  Politique,"  in  Revue  Int.  de  Sociologie,  II,  No. 
6;  idem,  "La  Sociologie  et  le  Droit,"  in  ibid.,  Ill,  No.  1;  idem,  "Classi- 
fication des  Sciences  Sociales,"  in  ibid.,  I,  437  ff.;  Powers,  "Terminol- 
ogy and  the  Sociological  Conference,"  in  Annals,  V,  705  ff.;  Ward, 
"Place  of  Sociology  Among  the  Sciences,"  in  A.  J.  S.,  I,  16-27;  Fair- 
banks, 11-17;  Small,  "Relation  Between  Sociology  and  Other  Sciences," 
in  A.  J.  S..  XII,  11-31;  idem.  General  Sociology,  44-62;  Hoffding,  "Re- 
lation Between  Sociology  and  Ethics,"  in  A.  J.  S.,  X,  672  ff.;  Small, 
Significance  of  Sociology  for  Ethics  (1902);  Greef,  Introduction,  I, 
chap,  vii;  Comte,  Positive  Philosophy,  II,  93  ff. ;  Carver,  Sociology  and 
Social  Progress,  65-87. 

Section  IV.     The  Methodology  of  Sociological  Study. 

I.  ''The  Basis  of  Method  is  Logic,  and  the  Basis  of  Logic  is 
the  Sufficient  Reason  or  Law  of  Causation"    (Ward,  Pu7-e 
Sociology,  45.    Cf.  Griddings,  Principles,  52-53;  Mill,  System 
of  Logic,  Book  VI). 
2 


18  GENERAL  SOCIOLOGY. 

1.  The  purpose  of  method  is  clearness;  it  is  the  principle 

of  style  (Ward,  45-6.  See  Spencer's  essay  on 
"Style")  ;  should  be  the  basis  of  the  educational  cur- 
riculum. 

2.  The  need  of  right  method  increases  directly  with  the 

complexity  of  a  science.  Sociology  is  the  most  com- 
plex of  the  sciences ;  if  its  results  are  less  certain 
than  those  of  the  physical  or  mathematical  sciences, 
they  are  more  important.  Comparison  with  biology 
and  psychology. 

3.  "In  the  complex  sciences  the  quality  of  exactness  is 

only  perceptible  in  their  higher  generalizations" 
(Ward,  48).  Should  the  sociologist  have  an  opinion 
on  current  questions? 

II.  The  Distinctive  Method  of  Sociology  is  Generalization: 
The  Grouping  of  Phenomena  and  Using  the  Groups  as 
Units  (Ward,  49  ff.). 

1.  Relativity    of    magnitude;    the    illusive    effect    of    the 

"near." 

2.  The  effect  of  distance,  or  its  equivalent,  is  "intensive"; 

that  of  proximity  is  "extensive." 

3.  The  mind's  power  of  generalization  depends  upon  in- 

herent capacity  and  equipment    (knowledge)  ;   illus- 
trations; "ethnographic  parallels";  governments;  law 
universal  in  social  phenomena,  even  those  regarded 
Br         as  extraordinary  (Ward,  Pure  Sociology,   53-54). 

4.  Law  in  history;  historical  determinism  (Ward,  56  ff.)  ; 
;  the  problem  of  "free  will"  and  causation  (Ward,  57; 

Gumplowicz,  "Actions  ou  Phenomenes,"  in  Revue  des 
\         Revues,  Nov.  15,  1895). 
'     ff.  Mesologv :  influences  of  environment. 

Z>.  The  law  of  parsimony:  "greatest  gain  for  least  ef- 
fort." 

III.  All  Scientific  Methods  Needful  in  Social  Science:  Deduc- 
tion, Induction,  Indirect  Deduction  ("Generalization  Inter- 
preted by  Deduction";  see  Giddings,  53  ff.). 

1.  Criticism  of  the  use  of  terms  "static"  and  "dynamic" 

(Giddings,   57  ff . ;   Ward.   "Static  and  Dynamic   So- 
ciology," in  Pol.  Sc.  Quart..  X,  No.  2). 

2.  Proper  and  improper  classification   (Giddings,  60  ff.)  ; 

examples:  misuse  of  biological  analogies. 


CHARACTERISTICS.  19 

3.  May  errors  of  classification  be  avoided  by  attention  to 

"ditferentiatioii'*?   (Giddings,  63  fiP.)- 

4.  Use  of  "empirical  generalizations"    (Giddings,  04  ff.). 

5.  Use  of  "psychological  synthesis''  (Giddings,  G5-()9). 

REFERENCES. 

t  Ward,  Pure  Sociology.  45-62,  161-63  (law  of  parsimony)  ;  idem. 
Dynamic  Sociology.  II,  Index  at  "Generality,"  "Generalization,"  "Ob- 
servation," "Scientific  Method,"  "Synthesis";  Dealey  and  Ward,  24-31; 
Giddings,  Principles,  52-69;  idem.  Inductive  Sociology,  11-27,  passim: 
idem,  "Exact  Methods  in  Sociology,"  in  Pop.  Sci.  Month.,  Dec,  1899; 
idem,  "Concepts  and  Methods  of  Sociology,"  in  A.  J.  S.,  X,  161-76; 
Durkheim,  Les  Regies  de  la  Mcthode  Sociologique,  1  ff.;  Greef,  Lois 
Sociologiques,  50  ff. ;  Blackmar,  Elements,  39-47;  Fairbanks,  Introduc- 
tion, 21  ff.;  Stuckenberg,  I..  47,  II,  300-307,  and  the  references  there 
given;  Menger,  Untersuchungen  ilber  die  Methode  der  Socialwissen- 
schaften  (1883);  Simm6l,  Die  Probleme  der  Geschichtsphilosophie ; 
Bernheim,  Lehrhuch  der  historischen  Methode,  2d  ed..  88  ff. ;  Zenker, 
Natiirliclie  Entwickelungsgeschichte  der  Gesellschaft ;  Reichesberg,  Die 
Statistik  und  die  Gesellschaftsioissenschaft;  Patten,  "Failure  of  Bio- 
logic Sociology,"  in  Annals,  IV.  919  ff. ;  idem.  Relation  of  Sociology 
to  Psychology ;  Comte,  Positive  Philosophy,  II,  57  ff.,  passim;  Huxley, 
in  Nineteenth  Century,  Feb.,  1887  (on  process  of  generalization); 
Caldwell,  "Philosophy  and  the  Newer  Sociology,"  in  Conteynp.  Rev., 
Sept.,  1898;  Bosanquet,  "Relation  of  Sociology  to  Philosophy,"  in 
Mind.  Jan.,  1898;  Baldwin,  "Present  Position  of  Sociology,"  in  Pop. 
Sci.  Monthly.  Oct.,  1899;  Branford,  "Origin  and  Use  of  the  Word  'Soci- 
ology,'" in  A.  J.  -Sf.,  IX,  145;  Small,  "Methodology  of  the  Social  Prob- 
lem," in  A.  J.  S.,  IV,  113-44,  235-56,  380-94;  idem.  General  Sociology, 
90-95;   Ratzenhofer,  Sociologische  Erkenntniss,  7-13. 


Section    Y.     The    "Unit    of    Investigation    in    Sociology"; 

Various  Conceptions. 

I.  The  "Social  Aggregate"  or  an  Entire  "Society"  Considered 
as  One  Organism. 

1.  Comparative  sterility  of  the  "panoramic"  method;   of 

generalizing  fi'om  supposed  vast  similarities  or  con- 
trasts. 

2.  Effect  of  the  "widening  of  the  ethnological  horizon" : 

there  are  many  "societies,"  each  with  its  own  "cycles" 
of  evolution,  its  own  experiences;  value  of  the  ex- 
plorations of  Spencer,  Letourneau,  and  the  German 
investigators. 

3.  Social  phenomena  do  not  repeat  themselves  en  masse 

(Tarde,  Social  Laws,  25). 

4.  Advantage  of  choosing  small  rather  than   large  units 

(Ross,  Foundations,  73-85). 


20  GENERAL  SOCIOLOGY. 

a.  Similarities  or  parallels. 

1)  Improper:    nations,    epochs,    civilizations,    revolu- 

tions, etc. 

2)  Proper:  crowd,  clan,  secret  society,  minute  cus- 

toms, tendencies,  relations,  processes,  or  changes, 
etc. 
6.  Contrasts: 

1)  Improper:  Pre-Christian  and  Post-Christian,  Jew 

and    Gentile,    Oriental    and  Occidental,    Ancient 
and  Western  (Kidd),  etc. 

2)  Proper:  conflict  and  compromise,  competition  and 

combination,    and    other    contrasts    revealed   in 
Ross's  "Map." 
c.  Causes   (Ross,  78-85). 

1)  Proper. 

2)  Improper. 

II.  The  "Socius" :  "Society  Exists  Whenever  an  Individual 
Has  a  Companion  or  Associate" :  Hence  the  Socins  is  the 
Unit  of  Society  or  Social  (jrroup  (Giddings,  Inductive  So- 
ciology, 9;  idem,  Elements,  9-11.  Cf.  Cooley,  Human  Na- 
ture; and  Bentley,  in  Annals,  Y,  915  ff.). 

1.  Man  as  the  concrete  unit  of  investigation  is  too  large; 

he  is  not  all  the  product  of  association    (cf.   Ross, 
Foundations,  85-86). 

2.  This  conception  is  inconsistent  with  the  character  of 

"personality"  (see  Cooley). 

III.  Social  Forces,  Xot  Socii  as  Individuals:  Society  is  a 
Synthesis  or  Combination  of  Social  Forces  ( Stuckenberg,  I, 
chaps,  iv,  v).    This  view  not  logical. 

lY.  The  Social  Organ  or  Functional  Group:  Not  the  Unit; 
for  there  are  Other  Kinds  of  Groupings. 

V.  The  Group :  Not  the  Exclusive  Unit ;  for  there  are  also 
Relations  constituting  Social  Bonds. 

VI.  Relations :  Not  the  Exclusive  Unit ;  for  these  are  Ob- 
jective, and  there  are  Subjective  Facts  (Ross,  87-8). 

VII.  Institutions. 

1.  Not  the  exclusive  unit;  for  there  are  temporary  and  il- 

licit groupings  and  formations  of  social  significance. 

2.  Not  the  unit :  for  an  institution  is  a  grouping,  rela- 

tion, or  mode  of  action  sanctioned  by  society,   and 
there  are  actual  elements  of  structure  not  so  recog- 


CHARACTERISTICS.  21 

nized;  and  the  lower  human  or  sub-human   (animal) 
sociology  is  neglected. 

VIII.  Social  Imperatives,  Being  Socially  Sanctioned  Actions 
or  Beliefs :     Not  the  Exclusiye  Unit ;  for  there  are  also 

IX.  Uniformities  or   Planes   not   binding  on   the    Individual. 

1.  Tendency  to  become  coercive. 

2.  Dui'kheim's  use  of  ''institution"  not  warranted. 
a.  Includes  too  much. 

&.  Excludes  phenomena  of  crowds  or  ''social  currents." 

X.  Social  Processes,  the  Primordial  Fact  Lying  Back  of  the 
five  Product-Units  (Groups,  Relations,  Institutions,  Im- 
peratives, Uniformities). 

1.  The  most  important  part  of  sociological  study,  involv- 

ing an  understanding  of  the  vital  elements   of  "so- 
cial forces"  and  "social  psychology." 
a.  Why  process  hitherto  neglected  in  favor  of  a  study 

of  products. 
6.  How  this   neglect   has   caused   living  process   to   be 

mistaken  for  institutional  survival    (Ross,  92-3). 
c.  Mistaken  tendency  to  account  for  social  life  from  a 
single  process;  whereas  there  are  many  processes. 

2.  Sequence  and  interaction  of  the  social  processes  (Ross, 

95-99). 

«.  Carefully  explain  Ross's  "Map  of  the  Sociological 
Field"' (p.  98). 

Z).  Compare  this  "map"  with  other  analyses  of  the  prov- 
ince of  sociology  (examine  the  table  of  contents 
of  Gidding's  Principles,  Ward's  Pure  Sociology 
(slightly  modified  in  form  in  Dealey  and  Ward's 

S  Text  Book) .  Spencer's  Principles,  Schilffle's  Bau 
und  Lehen  (Small,  158-66),  and  Greef's  Intro- 
duction, I,  158  ff.,  214;  Small,  235).  Compare  the 
schemes  of  Tarde,  Ratzenhofer  (partly  in  Small, 
284-86),  and  Gumplowicz. 

REFERENCES. 

Ross,  Foundations,  71-95;  idem,  in  A.  J.  S.,  IX,  188-207;  Giddings, 
Inductive  Sociology,  9;  idem,  Elements,  9-11;  Bentley,  "Units  of  In- 
vestigatioti  in  the  Social  Sciences,"  in  Annals.  V,  915-41;  Small,  Gen- 
eral Sociology,  3  ff.,  404-405,  passim  (social  process  the  province  of 
sociology  is  his  thesis);  Hayes,  in  A.  J.  S.,  X,,625  ff.,  750  ff. :  Adams, 
"The  Nature  of  Social  Unity,"  in  A.  J.  S.,  'IX,  208-27;  Simmel,  in 
Annals,  VI,  417,  422,  passim;  Stuckenberg,  I,  chaps,  iv,  v,  passim. 


CHAPTER  II. 

ELEMENTS   OF   SOCIETY:      THE   SOCIAL  POPULATION. 


Section  VI.    Size,  Density_,  and  Concentration  op 

Population. 

I.  Preliminary  Principles  and  Generalization  (Seligman, 
Principles,  48-49;  Giddings,  Principles,  79-82;  idem,  Descrip- 
tive and  Hist.  >iociologi),  72  tf..  91-92,  96-103;  Kropotkin, 
''Mutual  Aid  Among  Animals."  in  Nineteenth  Century, 
XXVIII,  702). 

1.  The  study  of  population  is  partly  economic,  but  mainly 

biological    and    sociological    (cf.    Ross,    Foundations, 
29  ff.). 

2.  Significance  of  aggregation. 

a.  Is  man  naturally  a  social  being?  (Cf.  Ward,  Pure 
Sociology,  555-57;  and  Giddings,  79.) 

&.  Aggregations  or  groups  among  animals,  savages,  and 
barbarians  (Howard,  llatrimonial  Institutions,  I, 
01  ff.,  animal  sociology). 

c.  Rare  examples  of  isolation  (Lumholtz,  ''Cave 
Dwellers  of  the  Sierra  Madre,"  in  Memoirs  of  the 
International  Congress  of  Anthropology,  1891; 
Seebohm,  Tribal  System  in  Wales,  46-17)  ;  isolation 
of  faniilies  and  individuals  in  the  U.  S.,  the  result 
of  transient  conditions. 

II.  Influences  Determining  the  Place  and  Extent  of  Aggrega- 
tion for  Animals  and  Men. 

1.  Environment   (Giddings,  Desc.  and  Hist.  Soc.,  91  ff.). 

a.  Drainage,  altitude,  temperature,  humidity,  soil,  ex- 
posure. 

6.  Food  supply  (Espinas,  Societes  Animales,  461,  pas- 
sim; Kropotkin.  op.  cit..  700-706;  Abbott,  Natural- 
ist's Wanderings ;  Giddings,  82  ff. ;  Taylor,  Anthro- 
pology. 207;  Grey,  Northwest  and  Western  Austra- 
lia, il,  276-78). 

c.  Examples  of  natural  habitats :  homes  of  the  Ameri- 
can aborigines;  valleys  of  the  Mississippi,  Ganges, 

(22) 


ELEMENTS   OF   SOCIETY.  23 

Euphrates,  Nile,    Yellow    River,   I*o,   Rhine;  arid 
regions;  aggregations  in  U.  S.  east  of  lUOth  merid- 
ian, 1790-1890  (Giddings,  8G-87). 
2.  Artificial   conditions:     man    transforms    the    environ- 
ment. 

a.  Aggregation  favors  further  aggregation. 

6.  Creation  of  the  secondary  means  of  subsistence. 

c.  Relative  density  of  population  in  the  hunting,  pas- 

toral, agricultural,  and  industrial  stages  (Selig- 
man,  49;  Roberts,  Anth.  Coal  Communities,  11-12)  : 
example.  New  England  Indians  in  Colonial  period. 

d.  Sentiment    may    sustain    a    city :    examples,    Mecca, 

Jerusalem,   Athens    (Hogarth,   Xearer  East,  274). 

III.  Resulting  Size  and  Density  of  Population. 

1.  Probable    population    of    the    globe;    of    the    United 

States;  and  of  the  principal  countries,  at  successive 
periods  (for  Russia,  see  Milioukov,  Essais,  chap.  ii. 
Compare  Hogarth,  Nearer  East,  14G-67). 

2.  Density  of  population  (Giddings,  Dcsc.  and  Hist.  Soc.^ 

io) . 

a.  When  industry  is  well  developed  density  depends  on 
wealth  or  the  means  of  procuring  food  rather  than 
on  domestic  or  local  food  production:  examples  of 
France  and  England  (Seligmau,  49-50). 

&.  Relative  present  density  in  different  countries  (for 
Russia,  see  Milioukov,  chap,  ii,  and  the  chart  at  the 
end  of  the  vol.     Compare  Hogarth,  146-67). 

c.  Relative  density  in  different  states  of  the  Union  (see 
map  and  diagram  in  Twelth  Census,  vol.  on  '"Popu- 
lation"; and  in  Seligman,  50-52). 

lY.  Concentration   (Agglomeration)   or  Distribution  of  Popu- 
lation between  City  and  Country. 

1.  Size,  character,  and  the  influences  determining  the  loca- 
tion or  founding,  of 
«.  Babylon,  Nineveh,   Egbatana,   Jerusalem,   Tyre,   and 

other  great  cities  of  ancient  Asia. 
6.  Athens  and  other  Hellenic  cities. 

c.  Rome  and  the  Italian  towns. 

d.  Mediaeval  cities  (for  these  and  the  preceding  groups, 

see  Kai^  Biicher,  in  Die  Grossstadt,  3-31). 


24  GENERAL  SOCIOLOGY. 

1)  Small  size  of  German  cities. 

2)  Small  size  of  English  cities. 

2.  Modern  cities    (Biiclier,  in  Die  O-rossstadt,  3-31;   and 
Weber,  Growth  of  Cities,  chap.  iii.    See  section  VIII, 
below). 
a.  The  great  city  is  a  modern  phenomenon;  its  vast  so- 
ciological significance. 
&.  Influences  determining  the  origin,  character,  and  ex- 
pansion ;    the    ''industrial    revolution" ;    system  of 
transportation  ;  location ;  names. 
c.  Present  state  of  the  urbanization  of  population  in 
the  United  States  and  other  countries :  percentages 
at  dififerent  dates  (Seligman,  51-52;  Weber,  1-142). 

REFERENCES. 

By  preference,  read  Seligman,  Principles  of  Economics,  48-53;  Gid- 
dings,  Principles  of  Sociology,  79  ff.;  idem.  Descriptive  and  Historical 
Sociology,  as  cited;  and  Mayo-Smith,  Statistics  and  Sociology,  341  ff. 
For  further  study,  consult  Twelfth  Census,  volumes  on  "Population"; 
also  Abstract  of  the  Ttoelfth  Census;  Weber,  Growth  of  Cities,  espe- 
cially 1-228;  Karl  Bucher,  in  "Die  Qrossstadt;'  3-31;  Allendorf,  Der 
Zuzug  in  die  Stddte;  Hogarth,  The  Nearer  East,  264,  146-67;  Milioukov, 
Essais,  238-40,  47-65;  Seeck,  Geschichte  des  Untergangs  der  antiken 
Welt,  I,  364,  368,  385  (cityward  flow);  Wells,  Anticipations,  39  fl.; 
Howe,  The  City  the  Hope  of  Democracy ;  Wright,  Practical  Sociology, 
21-63;  U.  S.  Industrial  Commission,  Report  (1903),  XIX,  1-13;  Tene- 
ment House  Department  of  N.  Y.  City,  First  Report  (2  vols.,  1904); 
University  of  Pa.,  Translations  and  Reprints,  II,  No.  1,  38-39  (Popula- 
tion of  English  Mediaeval  towns) ;  Levasseur,  La  Population  Francaise 
(1891).  For  a  bibliography  of  urban  population,  see  Brooks,  in  Mu- 
nicipal Affairs,  V,  227-30;  and  compare  the  discussion  of  authorities 
in  Weber,  op.  cit.,  476  ff.,  and  the  footnotes. 

See  the  Special  Card  Catalogue  of  the  Department  of  Political 
Science  and   Sociology  on  "Population." 


Section  YII.     Composition  of  the  Population. 

Distribution    (see    Special    Card    Catalogue    on    "Popula- 
tion"). 

1.  As  to  sex  (see  Westermarck,  Human  Marriage,  460-83, 
and  chaps,  xx,  xxi,  xxii;  Wake,  Marriage  and  Kin- 
ship, 223  ff.;  Howard,  Mat.  Inst.,  I,  132-41;  Bailey, 
67-94). 
a.  Relative  numbers  of  the  sexes: 

1)   In  older  and  less  civilized  countries,  often  an  ex- 
cess of  males;  causes  of  polyandry. 


ELEMENTS   OF   SOCIETY.  25 

2)  In  Europe,  about  1,064  females  to  1,000  males;  but 

the  birth-rate  of  males  exceeds  that  of  females: 
why  greater  mortality'? 

3)  In  America,  51.2  per  cent,  males;  48.8  per  cent. 

females;  but  in  Massachusetts,  51.3  per  cent,  fe- 
males ;  in.  Wyoming,  37.1  per  cent,  females. 
6.  Economic  and  social   significance  of  the  numerical 

disparity  of  the  sexes? 
c.  Influences  predetermining  the  sex  of  offspring   (Ho- 
ward, Matrimonial  Institutions,  I,  138-41). 

2.  As  to  age   (see  diagram  in  Seligman,  54;  and  Levas- 

seur,  Population,  II,  257-GO). 

a.  In  the  United  States  (1900)  :  26  millions,  male  and 
female,  between  5  and  20  or  of  school  age,  21  mil- 
lions, male,  of  voting  age  (over  21)  ;  and  16  mil- 
lions, male,  of  militia  age  (18  to  44). 

1).  Social  and  economic  significance  of  age-classes: 
child-labor;  public  education;  pensions,  etc. 

c.  Effect  of  immigration  and  emigration;  of  industrial 
conditions  (see  table  in  Seligman,  55). 

3.  As  to  occupation. 

a.  Age  limits  of  productive  classes  about  15  to  65. 

6.  Classification   of   U.    S.  population   by   occupations: 

great  increase  of  industrial  classes   (Seligman,  56. 

Cf.  U.  8.  Census,  "Population"). 

4.  Other  forms  of  distribution  or  classification   (see  Sec. 

IX,  below). 
II.  Demotic  Composition:     National  and  Racial  Distribution 
(Oiddings,  Principles,  96   ff . ;  idem,   Desc.   and  Hist.   Soc 
104-23).^ 

1.  Causes  and  processes  of  race-intermixture;   definition 

of  "demotic." 
a.  Intermarriages  of  aliens;  wife-stealing;  modern  hus- 
band-purchase. 
6.  Inter-clan  unions:  exogamy. 

c.  Conquest  with  incorporation  or  assimilation. 

d.  Immigration  and  migration :  the  chief  cause  in  mod- 

ern communities. 

2.  Intermixture    of    race-elements    in    American  popula- 

tion, 
a.  In  whole  country :  relative  number  of  foreign-born ; 


26  GENERAL  SOCIOLOGY. 

the  percentage  of  native-born  almost  stationary, 
being  13.2  in  1860,  and  13.7  in  1900  (Seligman.  60; 
Giddings,  Principles,  98-99). 

1).  In  the  various  states :  example  of  Utah. 

c.  In  the  great  cities:  examples  of  New  York  and  Chi- 

cago (Longstaff,  Studies  in  Statistics,  174;  "Hull 
House  Maps  and  Papers";  Giddings,  99). 

d.  In  particular  industrial  regions:  coal  fields  (Roberts, 

Anthracite  Coal  Communities,  3-27,  passim). 

1)  The  26  peoples;   characteristics,  physical,   moral, 

mental. 

2)  Social     problems     presented:     race-pride;     social 

"capilarity" ;  degeneration. 

3)  Problem  of  assimilation:  alleged  operation  of  Mal- 

thusian  law  (Roberts,  17). 

3.  Intermixture    of    race-elements    in   other  populations 

(Giddings,  Desc.  and  Hist.  Soc,  112  tf.). 

4.  Value  of  race-amalgamation. 

a.  Is  the  quality  improved   by  human  ''cross-fertiliza- 

tion"?       Law   of   "similarity"    (see   Westermarck, 

chaps,  xiii,  xv;  Howard,  I,  130-31). 
&.  Effect    of   amalgamation    on    the   American    people: 

will  the  ultimate  type  of  American  man  he  found 

in  the  Central  West? 

c.  Immigration  and  the  problem  of  a  lower  standard 
of  living :  significance  of  Chinese  exclusion ;  of 
other  restrictions  on  immigration. 

REFERENCES. 

Seligman,  Principles  of  Economics,  53-55;  Giddings,  Principles  of 
Sociology.  96  ff.;  idem,  Descriptive  and  Hist.  Sociology,  104-23;  Mayo- 
Smith,  Statistics  and  Sociology.  36  fl.;  Wright,  Practical  Sociology, 
33  ff.,  65  ff.,  151  ff.;  Levasseur,  Population,  II,  257  ff.;  U.  S.  Eleventh 
and  Ticelfth  Censuses,  "Population";  also  Abstract  of  Twelfth  Census; 
Roberts,  Anthracite  Coal  Communities,  chaps,  i,  ii,  passim;  Mahr 
(G.  von),  in  Die  Orossstadt.  73-146  (important  tables  for  Germany); 
Gulick,  Evolution  of  the  Japanese,  160-61  (child  labor),  passim;  Weber, 
Growth  of  Cities,  chaps,  vii,  viii,  368  ff. ;  the  works  of  Wake,  Wester- 
marck, and  Howard  as  above  cited;  and  Bailey,  Modern  Social  Condi- 
tions, 67  ff. 


ELEMENTS   OF   SOCIETY.  27 

Section  VIII.     The  Movement  op  Population. 

The  Genetic  Increase  of  Population. 

1.  The  marriage  rate   (Maj^o-Smith,  1)3  ff . ;  Seligman,  55- 

56;    Howard,    III,    213    ff.,    242    ff. ;    Weber,    319-30; 

Bailey,  136-212,  347  ff.). 
a.  The   present   rate    in    the    United    States;    in    other 

countries. 
&.  Proportion  of  single  persons  (Seligman,  56). 

1)  In  the  country. 

2)  In  the  city. 

c.  Movement  of  the  marriage  rate. 

1)  It  is  falling  both  in  Europe  and  America:  causes 

and  signiflcance? 

2)  In  America  and  England,  for  both  adult  and  total 

population  the  rate  is  higher  in  the  city  than  in 
the  country ;  but  in  the  United  States  the  cities 
have  a  smaller  proportion  of  the  married.  Why? 
(See  Weber,  319-30.) 

3)  In  genera],   the  marriage  age   is   rising    (Weber, 

326  ff.). 

4)  The  marriage  rate  falls  in  hard  times  and  rises 

on  the  recurrence  of  prosperity. 

5)  The   rate   rises   with   improvement    in    conditions 

favoring  the  employment  of  women. 

6)  Influence  of  migration  on  the  rate  (Weber,  328-9). 

2.  The  birth-rate  or  fecundity;  definition  of  ''crude"  and 

''refined"  rates    (Mayo-Smith,  65  ff . ;   Bailey,  95  ff.). 
ff.  The  actual  rate. 

1)  In  the  United  States,  about  35. 

2)  In  other  countries,  varies  from  22  in  France  to 

50  in  Russia  and  India. 
6.  Movement  of  the  rate. 

1)  Causes   of   variation:   race,    economic   conditions, 

occupation,  prudential  reasons,  psychic  causes; 
Fetter's  law  {Bevdlkerungslelire)  ;  Hadley, 
Economics,  48-49;  Weber,  337-38). 

2)  The  rate  is  falling  rapidly  in  the  eastern  states; 

among  native-born  as  compared  with  foreign 
born?  in  manufacturing  districts  as  compared 
with  agricultural  and  commercial? 


28  GENERAL  SOCIOLOGY. 

3)  Almost  universally  the  "crude"  rate  is  higher  in 

the  city  than  in  the  country;  but  not  always  th(- 
''refined"  rate.  Rule  in  Prussia?  In  Saxony? 
In  Massachusetts? 

4)  In  the  United  States,  families  are  larger  in  the 

city  than  in  the  country;  while  in  France  the  re- 
verse is  true;  but  there  seems  to  be  no  direct 
connection  between  agglomeration  and  fecun- 
dity (Weber,  328-38). 

5)  Families  are  larger  among  the  poorer  and  less  in- 

telligent classes;  the  birth-rate  diminishes  as 
civilization  advances;  relation  to  "density" 
(Seligm.an,  57;  Weber,  338  ff. ;  Brownell,  "Sig 
nificance  of  a  Decreasing  Birth- Rate,"  in  Annals, 
V,  48-89,  and  many  authorities  there  cited)  : 
Reasons?    The  problem  of  "race-suicide"? 

6)  In    mining    and    manufacturing    populations    the 

birth-rate  is  relatively  higher  than  in  agricultu- 
ral and  commercial  populations  (Wappaus,  II, 
481;  Newsholme,  Yital  Statistics,  57;  Weber, 
321,  341-42,  and  his  Table  CXLVI). 

7)  Effect  of  cityward  migration  on  the  rate  (Weber, 

342-3). 

8)  Proportion  of  illegitimate  births:  in  the  country 

as    compared    with    the    city     (Weber,    404-406, 
294-05,   332-33,   335-36,   362-63;    Seligman,   55-56; 
Levasseur,  II,  34,  206,  400-401). 
3.  The  death-rate:   mortality;  importance  of  the  refined 
rate  (Mayo-Smith,  128  ff . ;  Bailey,  213  ff.). 
a.  The  actual  rate. 

1)  In  modern  communities  17-21  per  1.000. 

2)  In  the  U.  S.  (1900)  17  per  1,000. 

3)  Rate  in  various  states  and  cities. 

1).  Movement  of  the  rate  (Weber,  343-67;  "Vital  Statis 
tics  in  New  England"  (1892),  57;  Seligman,  57). 

1)  Causes:  season,  age,  sex,  race,  sanitary  condition. 

2)  The  rate  is  slightly  greater  for  males. 

3)  The  average  urban  rate  is  larger  than  the  rural; 

great  decrease  of  the  urban  rate  in  recent  times 
(Seligman,  59;  Weber,  355-58). 


ELEMENTS    OF    SOCIETY.  29 

4)  Selected  cities  show  a  rate  lower  than  the  rural 

(Weber,  444). 

5)  Expectancy  of  life  in  city  and  country    (Weber, 

346-7). 

c.  Vast    sociological    significance    of    the    death-rate; 

waste  of  child-life  and  waste  of  human  life  in  gen- 
eral is  the  real  "race-suicide"  (see  Spargo,  Bitter 
Cry  of  the  Children) . 

1)  Sanitation    and    housing;    milk  inspection;  open 

spaces  and  recreation  (Weber,  349  ff.). 

2)  Pure  food  and  water;  temperance. 

3)  Scientific    treatment    of    disease;    evil    of    patent 

medicines. 

4)  Kavages  of  war  compared  with  those  of  bad  sani- 

tation. 

d.  Historical  illustrations. 

1)  Depopulation   of   Rome;   vitality   of   Teutons;    of 

ancient  Greeks   (Seeck,  I,  201-202,  338-80;  Pear- 
son, 71  ff. ;  Gibbon,  chap.  ii). 

2)  Why  the  mediaeval   English  population  was  sta- 

tionary for  200  years. 

3)  Are  the  limits  of  the  ''higher"  races  "unchange- 

able"?     (Pearson,    31-00;"  Ward.    Applied   Soci- 
ologij,  107-109,  236  (equivalence  of  races).) 
II.  Congregate  Growth  of  Population;  Mobility. 

1.  Origin  of  free  migration. 

a.  Phenomena  of  migTation  in  early  society  (Giddings, 
Principles,  90  ff . ;  idem,  Desc.  and  Hist.  Soc.,  77  ff.). 

&.  Checks  to  mobility  in  the  middle  ages,  notably  in 
England. 

c.  Significance   of   the   American   doctrine   of   right   of 

expatriation ;    industrial   and   social   influences   fa- 
voring mobility. 

d.  Composite    character    of    human    race    through    mo- 

bility. 

2.  Emigration  and  immigration  in  modern  communities. 
a.  Immigration  usually  swells  population  of  new  coun- 
tries while  emigrntion  does  not  often  diminish  that 
of  old  countries:  effect  of  increasing  birth-rate? 

6.  Problem  of  migration  in  United  States. 
1)   Extent  of  immigration ;  restrictive  laws. 


30  GENERAL  SOCIOLOGY. 

2)  Internal  migration:  Causes?    Social  effects?    Evi- 

dences of  a  transition  phase? 

3)  The  problem  of  assimilation  (see  Simons,  in  A.  J. 

.%VI,  VII). 
c.  The  cityward  flow  of  population. 

1)  Kelative  increase  through  genetic  and  congre- 
gate growth  (for  Germany,  see  Biicher,  in  Die 
Grosssiadt,  3-31;  Allendorf,  Der  Zuzug  in  Die 
Stadte;  and  compare  Kuczynski,  Der  Zug  nach 
dei\8tadt:  :Nrilioukov,  Essais.  27  ff..  238  ff.,  for 
Russia). 

3.  Causes. 

a.  General  causes. 

6.  Influence  of  railways    (Weber,  23-2.5). 

c.  Influence  of  cheap  and  SAvift  transportation  on  the 

expansion     of     cities     {see    Wells,     Anticipations, 

30-72;  Weber,  409  ft'.). 

4.  The  garden  city  movement  in  England ;  the  "back-to-the- 

farm"  cry  in  America. 

5.  Social  effects  of  urban  agglomeration  (Weber,  431  ff.). 

6.  Hansen's  indictment  of  cities   (see  his  Drei  Bcvolker- 

ungsstufen  (1889)  ;  and  the  criticism  of  Weber, 
370  ff.). 
III.  The  Law  of  Population  (Seligman,  60-65;  Patten,  "Law 
of  Population  Restated,"  in  Pol.  Sc.  Quart.,  X;  Fetter,  "Es- 
say on  Malthus,"  in  Yale  Review,  VII;  Bonnar,  Malthus 
and  His  Work  (1885)  ;  Spencer,  Principles  of  Biology,  Part 
VI,  chap  xii). 

1.  Statement  of  Malthus's  law. 

2.  Examination  of  his  law. 

3.  Neo-malthusianism. 

REFERENCES. 

Seligman,  Principles  of  Economics.  55-65;  Giddings,  Principles  of 
Sociology.  87-96;  idem.  Descriptive  and  Hist.  Sociology,  74-91;  Weber, 
Groivth  of  Cities.  318-67;  Mayo-Smith,  Statistics  and  Sociology,  36-177; 
Ogle,  "On  Marriage  Rates  and  Marriage  Ages,"  in  Journal  of  the  Sta- 
tistical Society  (English),  LIII  (1890),  253-80;  Crum,  "Marriage  Rate 
in  Mass.,"  in  American  Statistical  Association,  Publications,  IV,  322-39; 
idem,  "Birth  Rate  in  Mass.,"  in  Quarterly  Journal  of  Economics,  XI, 
248-65;  Kuczynski,  "Fecundity  of  the  Native  and  Foreign  Born  Popu- 
lation in  Mass.,"  in  ibid..  XVI,  1-36:  idem,  Der  Zug  nach  der  Stadt 
(1897);  Bertillon,  "Morbidity  According  to  Occupation,"  in  Jour.  Stat. 
Society,  LV    (1892);    Levasseur,  Population.   11,  as  cited;    Booth    (C). 


ELEMENTS    OF   SOCIETY.  31 

"On  the  Birth  Rate  in  London,"  in  Jour,  of  Stat.  Society  (1893);  Bil- 
lings, "Diminishing  Birth-Rate  in  the  U.  S.,"  in  Forum,  XV,  467-77; 
Edson,  "American  Life  and  Physical  Degeneration,"  in  North  Am. 
Revieiv,  CLVH,  440-51;  Marshall,  Principles  of  Economics  (3d  ed.), 
263;  Wappaus,  Allgemeuie  Bevolkcrungsstatistik  (1861);  Henriot  (P.), 
Agglomerations  Urbaines  (1897);  N.  Y.  Tenement  House  Committee, 
Report,  1894;  Seeck,  Gesch.  des  Untergangs  der  antiken  Welt,  I,  201- 
202,  338-90;  Pearson,  National  Life  and  Character,  31-90;  Kendall, 
"Natural  Heirship:  or,  All  the  World  Akin,"  in  Nineteenth  Century, 
XVIII  (1885);  Fairlie,  Municipal  Administration,  77-102  (rise  of  Amer- 
ican cities);  Goodnow,  City  Government,  chap,  iii;  Howe,  The  City 
the  Hope  of  Democracy ;  Shaw,  Municipal  Government  in  Great  Brit- 
ain; idem.  Municipal  Government  in  Continental  Europe,  Index  at 
various  major  topics  mentioned  in  this  syllabus;  Newsholme,  Vital 
Statistics.  On  the  marriage  rate,  see  Howard,  Matrimonial  Institu- 
tions, III,  213  ff.,  242  ff.;  Westergaard,  Statistik  der  Ehen;  Cauderlier, 
Lois  de  le  Population;  Oettingen,  Die  Moralstatistik ;  Willcox,  "Mar- 
riage Rate  in  Michigan,"  in  Am.  Stat.  Ass.,  IV;  idem,  "Study  in  Vital 
Statistics,"  in  Pol.  Sci.  Quart.,  VIII;  Farr,  Vital  Statistics:  Wright, 
Practical  Sociology.  105-49;   Bailey,  Modern  Social  Conditions. 

For  more  extended  study,  see  the  Special  Card  Catalogue  on  "Popu- 
lation." 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE   FACTORS   OR   CAUSES   OF   SOCIAL   PHENOMENA. 


Section  IX.     The  Nature  of  the  Social  Forces  or  Human 
Desires  (Wants^  Cravings). 

I.  Criticism  of  Various  Theories  of  the  Social  Forces  (Ross, 
Foundations,  149-61;  Small,  General  Sociology,  79,  80-90). 

1.  The  so-called  ''dualistic  sociologj-"  (Barth,  167-94). 

a.  Alleged  '^dualism"  of  Franklin  H.  Giddings  {Prin- 
ciples of  Sociologi/,  363-99,  especially  363,  370). 

1)  Role     of     "cosmic    energy"    as    social    causation 

(physical  social  process). 

2)  Role  of  men's  desires  as  social  causation  (psychic 

social  process). 
6.  Alleged  "dualism"  of  J.  S.  McKenzie  (Introduction 

to    Social    PliUosophy,    369    ff.    Cf.    Small,    83-84; 

Barth,  172  ff.). 
c.  Alleged  "dualism"  of  Lester  F.  Ward  (Small,  81-82; 

Barth,  167-72).     See  II  below. 

2.  Theory  of  two  sets  of  social  factors  (Ross,  150-52). 

fl.  The  external  factors  or  environment :  these  are  in- 
fluences or  causes  determining  volitions. 

&.  The  internal  or  psychic  factors :  these  are  volitions, 
desires;  the  proximate  causes  of  the  telic  event. 

e.  Compare  this  form  of  "dualism"  with  the  "dualism" 
of  cosmic  and  psychic  energy,  as  above  considered. 
For  the  discussion  of  environment  as  a  factor  of 
social  phenomena,  see  future  syllabus. 

3.  The  confusion  of  "needs"  with  "wants"  (Ross,  152-54). 
a.  Needs  as  "functions"  or  "welfare  activities." 

6.  Wants  (desires)  include  dynamic  activities  other 
than  those  necessary  for  welfare  or  survival. 

II.  Desires   (Manifestations  of  Feeling)   are  the  Essential  or 
Proximate  Social  Forces. 

1.  Great  importance  of  Ward's  doctrine  {Dynamic  So- 
ciology, I,  chap.  V,  and  Index  at  "Desire,"  "Desires," 
"Social  Forces";  Psychic  Factors  of  Civilisation,  es- 

(32) 


FACTORS  OR  CAUSES.  33 

pecially  chaps,  ix,  xviii;  Pure  Sociology,  chaps,  vi, 
vii,  ix,  and  practically  all  of  Part  II;  "The  Social 
Forces,''  in  A.  J.  1^.,  II,  82-95;   Dealey  and  Ward, 
Parts  I,  II,  III). 
a.  His  "dualism";  he  insists  on  physical  basis  of  psychic 

phenomena    (see  especially  Pure  Sociology,  chaps. 

V,  x;  Dealey  and  Ward,  chap.  vii). 
&.  His  gi-eat  contribution  is  the  revelation  of  desires, 

feelings,  as  the  essential  or  psychic  social  forces; 

sociolog}'  a  psychic  fact. 

1)  Feeling  is  the  dynamic  agent;  a  connative  cause 

or  true  "cosmic"  force. 

2)  Intellect  is  the  directive  agent;  a  telle  or  "final" 

cause. 

2.  Psychology  of  the  social  forces  (Ward,  Psychic  Factors, 

13-35). 
a.  The  dual  nature  of  mind. 

1)    Sense. 
-  2)   Intellect. 

h.  The  psychological  process   (Ward,  PsycMc  Factors, 
15  fif.). 

1)  Sensation:   either  intensive  or  indifferent:  basis 

of  subjective  psychology   (chiefly  the  intensive). 

2)  Perception :  the  process  produced  by  fixing  atten- 

tion upon  the  notion  or  knowledge  caused  by 
sensation :  the  basis  of  objective  psychology 
(chiefly  derived  from  the  indifferent  sensations). 

3)  The  scale  or  order  of  the  senses  passing  from  sub- 

jective to  objective:  touch,  taste,  smell,  hearing, 
sight;  but  if  emotion  be  included,  it  must  come 
'before  toiich,  because  it  is  exclusively  subjective 
(see  below). 

3.  Resulting  classification  of  the  sensations  or  feelings. 
A.  As  to  Origin. 

1.  Primary-  or  direct. 
a.  Touch. 

&.  Taste. 

c.  Smell. 

2.  Secondary  or  indirect  (derivative). 

d.  Hearing  (emotional). 

e.  Sight  (emotional). 

f.  Emotion  (so-called  "sixth  sense"). 


34  GKNERAL  SOCIOLOGY. 

B.  As  to  Location. 

1.  External:  the  five  senses  (roughly  classed). 

2.  Internal :    the   emotions :    diffused ;    caused    chiefly 

by  ideas  or  products  of  brain  ideation ;  produce 
no  perception  or  direct  knov.iedge. 

[•'  C.  As  to  Quality. 

1.  Intensive  (sphere  of  subjective  psychology). 
a.  Pleasureable. 

6.  Painful. 

1)  Presentative  or  primary  pain. 

2)  Representative   or  secondary   pain    (equal  to 

desire). 

2.  Indifferent  (sphere  of  objective  psychology). 
a.  Conscious. 

6.  Unconsious. 

4.  Subjective  psychology   ( Ward, .  Psi/c/iic  Factors,  20-24; 

idem,    Pure    Sociology,    97    ff. ;    Dealey    and    Ward, 

60  ff.). 
a.  Has  to  do  with  the  sensations,  not  the  intellect. 
6.  Has  to  do  mainly  with  the  intensive  sensations. 

c.  Therefore  hns   to   do   especially   with  the  emotions: 

these  are  the  principal  social  forces  or  desires. 

1)  Produce  no  knowledge  or  perceptions. 

2)  Nerve  currents  only  media. 

3)  Some  of  the  emotional  ganglia  are  connected  with 

the  cerebrospinal  system;  but  the  great  emo- 
tional centers  are  connected  with  the  sympathetic 
system,  whose  operations  are  internal  and  mainly 
unconscious. 

d.  Variety  or   scope  of  the  emotions    (Ward,   Psychic 

Factors,  52  &.). 

e.  The  connative  faculty;  philosophy  of  desire  (see  be- 

low). 

5.  Objective  psychology. 

a.  Has  to  do  exclusively  with  perceptions  and  their 
"elaboration  by  the  brain."  Hearing  and  sight  de- 
voted exclusively  to  furnishing  perceptions;  the 
other  senses  in  less  degree. 

&.  Perceptions  are  registered  in  the  brain  by  a  physio- 
logical process. 


FACTORS    OR   CAUSES,  35 

c.  Intellectual  elaboration :  percosiytion,  conception, 
judgment  (expressed  in  a  proposition,  and  may  be 
truth  or  error),  idea,  generalization,  reasoning. 

cl.  Intuition  (Ward,  Psi/chic  Factors,  28-9,  133  ff.). 

6.  The  connative  faculty  or  will  (Ward,  Psi/chic  Factors, 

30  ff.,  44  ff.,  59  &.;idem,  Pure  Sociology,  13G  ff.,  247 
ff.;  Dealey  and  Ward,  69  ff.). 

7.  Philosophy  of  desire    (Ward,  Psr^hic  Factors,  51-58; 

Dealey  and  Ward,  65  ff.). 

8.  The  claims  of  feeling  or   desire    (Ward.  Applied  So- 

cioJogy,  29  ff.). 
III.  Criticism  of  Various  Theories  of  the   Desires  as  Social 
Forces  (Ross,  Foundations,  154-161). 

1.  Theory  of  one  general  force  or  the  desire  for  the  so- 

cial welfare. 

2.  Winiarski's  quantitative  theory  or  doctrine  of  equiva- 

lence   {Revue    Philosophique,    XLV,    351-86,    XLIX, 
113-34;  summarized  by  Ross,  156  ff.). 

REFERENCES. 

Ross,  Foundations.  149-61;  same  in  A.  J.  S.,  IX,  526-48;  Patten, 
"Theory  of  the  Social  Forces,"  in  Supplement  to  Annals,  Jan.,  1896; 
Ward,  Dynamic  Sociology,  I,  468-82,  and  his  various  works  above 
cited;  Stuckenberg,  Index  at  "Forces  Social";  Dealey  and  Ward,  chap, 
vii,  passim:  Small,  532  ff.,  623.  For  a  discussion  and  a  classification 
of  the  social  forces,  see  Zenker,  Natilrliche  EntwichlungsgeschicMe 
(ler  Gesellschflft,  83-95. 


Section  X.     Classificatiox  of  the  Social  Forces. 

I.  Why  there  is  Need  of  Classifying  the  Social  Forces  (Ross, 
Foundations,  161-64). 

1.  Hedonism :    are   social    forces   reducible   to    desire   for 
most  pleasure  and  least  pain?     (Cf.  Ward,  Pure  So- 
ciology, 129  ff. ;  idem.  Applied  Sociology,  25,  244,  327, 
and  Index  at  'Tain,"  "'Pleasure"-;  idem.  Psychic  Fac- 
tors,  30.    35;    idem,    Dynmnic    Sociology,    Index    at 
"Pain,"  "Pleasure.") 
a.  Are  some  of  the  instincts  mere  survivals  and  there- 
fore meaningless  uuder  present  conditions? 
i.  Nature  of  the  impulses. 

c.  Significance  of  "play"   (see  Groos,  Tlie  Play  of  Ani- 
mals). 


36  GENERAL  SOCIOLOGY. 

d.  Reason  destroys  as  well  as  creates  interests,  crav- 
ings, desires. 

2.  The  social  factor;  imitation  of  the  gratifications  of  the 

elite. 

3.  Hedonism   and   the   ''law   of  parsimony"    (Ross,    164; 

Ward,  Pure  Sociology,  161-63), 

4.  The    problem    of   "pain-economy"    and    "pleasure-econ- 

omy" (Patten,  in  Annals,  Snpp.  to  VII  (1896),  59, 
60,  75  ff.;  Ward,  Pure  Sociology,  104-105,  283  ff.; 
idem,  "Utilitarian  Economics,"  in  A.  J.  S.,  Ill, 
520-36;  idem,  in  Annales  de  I'Institut  Int.  de  Sociolo- 
gie,  IV,  89-132). 

II.  Small's  Classification  [General  Sociology.  196-223,  425- 
42,  443-81,  523-37 ;  A.  J.  S.,  \1.  177-79.  Criticised  by  Ross, 
165;  idem,  A.  J.  S.,  IX,  537). 

1.  Principle  of  his  classification. 

a.  Interests  are  the  basis  (lie  back)  of  desires  or  par- 
ticular forces  (see  especially  General  Sociology, 
534-35). 

6.  Interests  are  to  desires  as  substance  to  attribute  or 
as  genus  to  species.  We  may  be  unconscious  of  the 
stimulating  basic  interests.  These  are  "teleogical" 
(p.  431). 

c.  Social  process  consists  mainly  of  "conjunction  of  in- 
terests" and  "conflict  of  interests"  {Gen.  Soc,  202- 
203). 

2.  Enumeration  of  the  basic  interests  or  social  forces. 
a.  Health-interest:  food,  sex.  work. 

1).  Wealth-interest. 

c.  Sociability-interest. 

d.  Knowledge-interest. 

e.  Beauty-interest. 

f.  Rightness-interest. 

III.  Ratzenhofer's  Classification  ( Sociologische  Erkenntniss, 
54-66;  Ross,  166;  Small,  189  ff.,  passim.  Cf.  Fairbanks, 
119  ff.). 

1.  Primitive  or  basic  "interests." 

a.  Race-interest :  impulses  centering  in  the  reproductive 

functions. 
h.  Physiological  interest:  hunger  and  thirst. 


B^ACTORS  OR  CAUSES.  37 

2.  Secondary  interests,  developing  from  the  primarr. 

c.  Egotic  interest    (from   "a"). 

d.  Social  interest  (from  ''b"). 

e.  Transcendental  interest;  from  feeling  of  dependence 

on  the  infinite  (cosmos). 
IV.  Ward's  Classification. 

1.  Principles  of  the  classification. 

a.  Considers  "function"  to  which  the  forces  prompt. 
h.  Based  mainly  on  psychic  analysis. 

2.  Enumeration  of  the  classes  of  forces  or  desires  (see  the 

Table  in  Pure  Sociology,  261;   idem.   Dynamic  So- 
ciology, 1,  472;  Dealey  and  Ward,  78;  Ross,  1G7). 
"V.  Stuckenberg's  Classification  (Sociology,  I,  207  ff.,  and  In- 
dex at  "Forces";  cf.  Ross,  1G7-68). 

1.  Fundamental. 

a.  Economic  (involves  the  desire  for  wealth). 

h.  Political  (involves  two  egotic,  non-political  desires). 

2.  Constitutional, 
e.  Egotic. 

d.  Appetitive. 

e.  Affectional. 

f.  Recreative. 

3.  Cultural. 

g.  x\esthetic. 
h.  Ethical. 

i.  Religious. 
/.  Intellectual. 
VI,  Ross's  Classification    {Foundations,  168-81). 
A.  Desires  (original  forces). 

1.  Natural. 

a.  Appetitive :  hunger,  thirst,  sex-appetite. 
h.  Hedonic. 

c.  Egotic. 

d.  Afl'ective. 

e.  Recreative. 

2.  Cultural. 

f.  Religious   (cf.  James,  Varieties  of  Religious  Experi- 

ence; Brinton,  Religion  of  Primitire  Peoples). 

g.  Ethical :  love  of  fair  play,  sense  of  justice. 

h.  Aesthetic :    desire    for    pleasure    of    perception,    the 

beautiful. 
i.  Intellectual. 


38  GENERAL  SOCIOLOGY. 

B.  Interests :  Based  on  Primary  Forces  Acting  tvith  re- 
spect to  Wealth.,  Government^  and  Knowledge  (sec- 
ondary or  derivative  forces). 

1.  Economic  interest. 

2.  Political  interest. 

3.  Eeligions  interest. 

4.  Intellectual  interest. 

Section  XI.     The  Desires  and  Human  Achievement. 

I.  Progress  and  the  Multiplication  of  Desires. 

1.  Few  and  simple  wants  of  backward  races,  classes,  and 

individuals. 

2.  The  conflict  of  desires. 

a.  Among  the  primitive  Christians ;  religion  and  beauty. 
1).  Among  the  17th  Century  Christians  of  England. 

3.  Pathological  aspects  of  transition  periods  in  the  evolu- 

tion of  wants;  Nero  and  the  rise  of  artistic  desires 
among  the  Romans  (Capes,  Early  Empire^  111-16, 
226  ff.). 

4.  Luxury  and  the  evolution  of  culture   (A.  G.  Warner, 

''Economic  Notes  Eegarding  Luxury,"  in  Am.  Ass.  for 
Ad.  of  Sc,  XXXYIII  (1889)  ;  and  Moran,  in  A.  J.  S., 
VI,  823-38). 

a.  Luxuries  which  express  spiritual  growth. 

h.  Luxuries  which  express  perverted  tastes  or  desires. 

c.  Unsocial  or  anti-social  desires:  "Conspicuous  waste" 
(Yeblen,  Theory  of  the  Leisure  Class). 

II.  Illustrations  of  the  Nature  of  the  Desires  in  Their  Relation 
to  Progress. 

1.  Highly  developed  tastes,  especially  the  literary,  of  the 

Roman  senatorial  nobles  of  4th  century;  life  on  the 
villa   (Munro,  Mediaeval  Civilization,  32-33). 

2.  Comparison  of  the  desires  of  the  natives  with  those  of 

the  Chinese  tradesmen  in  Java  (Day,  ''Experiences  of 
the  Dutch  with  Tropical  Labor,''  in  Yale  Review,  IX 
(1900),  58-75,  especially  70,  73;  Clark,  "Labor  Con- 
ditions in  Java,"  in  Bulletin  of  Bureau  of  Labor, 
No.  58  (1905),  906-58,  especially  923,  924). 

3.  Contentment    and    social    stagnation    in  Cuba  (Clark, 


FACTORS  OR  CAUSES.  39 

''Labor  ronditions  in  Cuba,"  in  Bulletin  of  the 
Bureau  of  Labor,  VII,  No.  41  (1902),  663-793,  espe- 
cially 747). 

4.  The  Filipino's  standard  of  living  and  the  American  im- 

perial problem :  few  wants,  tropical  abundance,  dis- 
like of  work,  improvidence  (Clark,  '"Labor  Conditions 
in  the  Philippines,"  in  Bulletin  of  the  Bureau 
of  Lahor  (1905),  No.  58,  pp.  721-905,  especially  793, 
841). 

5.  Wants  of  the  Mexicans  and  of  the  American  Indians 

compared:  rum,  tobacco,  sloth,  lack  of  ambition 
(Weyl,  ''Labor  Conditions  in  Mexico,"  in  Bulletin  of 
the  Bureau  of  Lalor,  VII  (1902),  No.  38,  pp. 
1-94,  especially  15-16). 

6.  Illustrations    of    the    operation    of    the    phylogenetic 

forces. 

a.  Effect  of  the  rise  of  sex-desires  on  moral  conduct 
(Marro,  "Influence  of  the  Puberal  Development 
Upon  the  Moral  Character  of  Children  of  Both 
Sexes,"  in  A.  J.  S.,  V,  193-219). 

&.  Moral  and  cultural  results  as  seen  in  the  phenomena 
of  wooing  among  animals  and  men  (Howard, 
Matrimonial  Institutions,  I,  202-208,  and  many  au- 
thorities there  cited). 

7.  The  gaming  instinct  as  a  social  force   (Thomas,  "The 

Gaming  Instinct,"  in  A.  J.  8.,  VI,  750-63)  :  The  so- 
cial philosophy  of  rivalry  in  contests  of  skill  and 
chance. 

8.  As   illustrated   by   the   law  of  parsimony    (Flamingo, 

"Une  Loi  Sociologique,"  in  Revue  Internat.  de  8o- 
ciologie  (1894),  409-21,  especially  .414-21). 

9.  As  illustrated  in  the  discussion  of  "Historical  or  Eco- 

nomic Materialism"  (by  Kellez-Kranz,  Novicow, 
Loria,  Kovalewsky,  and  others,  in  Annalcs  de  VInst. 
Int.  de  Sociologie/yUI  (1900-1901),  49-327). 

10.  Social  forces  (desires)  versus  alleged  race-character- 
istics (Zenker,  Die  Gesellsehaft,  II  (1903),  83-95:  an 
able  account,  with  a  classification  of  the  social  forces. 


40  GENERAL  SOCIOLOGY. 

Section  XII.     The  Evolution  of  Desires. 

A.  General  Illustrations  of  the  Origin  and  Development  of 

Desires. 

I.  Phylogenetic  Forces. 

1.  Relative  unimportance   of  the   sex-desire   as   a   social 

force  among  primitive  men  (Howard,  Matrimonial  In- 
stitutions, I,  93  ff.,  98  ff,,  and  the  authorities  there 
cited). 

2.  Temple-prostitution  and  other  practices,   supposed  to 

be  evidence  of  primitive  promiscuity,  are  the  results 
of  the  rise  of  complex  desires  due  to  progress  in  in- 
stitutions (Howard,  I,  47  flf.,  and  authorities  there 
cited). 

3.  Early  evolution  of  sex-desires  among  the  Hebrews  and 

other  Semites  (Barton,  Semitic  Origins,  41-45,  pas- 
sim; Howard,  I,  161  ff.,  and  Index  at  ''Hebrews"'). 

II.  Rise  and  Consequences  of  the  Institution  of  Property  and 
the  Desire  for  Wealth. 

1.  Dominance  of  the  economic  interest  among  the  Baby- 

lonians, 22.50  B.  C. :  leads  to  law  and  social  control 
(Vincent,  "Laws  of  Hammurabi,"  in  A.  J.  S.,  IX, 
737-54,  especially  748,  753). 

2.  Significance    of    wife-purchase     (sale     of    daughters) 

among  the  Arabs  before  Mahomet  (Robertson  Smith, 
Kinship  and  Marriage,  78-79;  Howard,  I,  161  ff., 
195  ff.). 

3.  Significance   of  development   of  property   in   pastoral 

stage:  wife-purchase  for  cattle;  paternal  kinship; 
rise  of  economic  interest  (Hildebrand,  Recht  und 
Sitte,  23,  31). 

4.  Rise  of  commercialism  among  Highland  chiefs  on  fall 

of  Clan-system  after  1745 :  Craving  for  money,  land- 
rents  (Blackie,  Scottish  Highlanders  and  the  Land 
Law,  39-42,  43,  45,  46,  passim). 

5.  The     consumption     of     wealth     (Moran,     "Ethics     of 

Wealth,"  in  A.  J.  8.,  VI,  823-38). 
a.  Low  ideals :  luxury ;  conspicuous  waste. 
1).  High  ideals:  individual  and  social  utility, 
c.  Is  luxury  ever  morally  and  socially  justifiable?     Are 
there  luxuries  which  ennoble  and  signify  progress? 


FACTORS  OR  CAUSES.  41 

6.  Evolution    of   desires    among   industrial    wage-earners 

(Roberts,  Anthracite  Coal  Communities ,  237-43,  253, 

283,87-119). 

7.  New  ideals  regarding  the  production,  consumption,  and 

distribution  of  wealth  (Small,  "A  Dutch  Co-operative 
Experiment,"  in  A.  J.  S.,  VII,  80-90)  :  reciprocal  in- 
terests of  capitalist  and  laborer. 

III.  Evolution  of  Desires  Among  the  People  of  the  Western 
Plains  and  Mountains  of  the  United  States  (R.  L.  Stevenson, 
''Across  the  Plains,"  in  Works  (Scribners,  1895),  XY,  115 
ff.,  124-48). 

IV.  Ideals  as  Desires. 

1.  Of  the  Japanese. 

a.  Small  desire  for  life  under  the  feudal  regime; 
apotheosis  of  suicide  (Gulick,  Evolution  of  the  Jap- 
anese, 154-58). 

h.  Hero-worship  [ihid.,  94  flf.). 

G.  Effect  of  contact  with  Occident  [ihid.,  23  ff.,  159  ff.). 

2.  Ideals  producing  the  crusades   and   produced   by   the 

crusades  (Guizot,  Hist,  of  Civilization,  I,  173-92; 
Cox,  Crusades;  Prutz,  KuUurgeschiclite  der  Kreiiz- 
ziige,  392-93,  contrast  of  the  ideals  of  the  Templars 
and  the  Venetian  traders). 

3.  Ideals  of  the  Cistercians  and   other   monastic  orders 

contrasted  with  those  of  the  Cluniacs  and  with  those 
of  the  military  class  (Munro,  Mediaeval  Civilization. 
155,  157-58). 

4.  Ideals  of  the  Roman  Stoics  contrasted  with  those  of 

the  freedmen  and  those  of  average  Roman  society 
(Capes,  Early  Empire,  117-18,  22.3-36;  idem,  Age  of 
the  Antonines,  90,  127-30,  178-79;  Dill,  Roman  /^o- 
cietg  from  Nero  to  Marcus  Aurelius  (1905),  1  ff., 
58  ff.,  100  ff. ;  141  ff.,  289  ff.,  334  ff. ;  idem,  Roman  So- 
ciety in  the  Last  Century  of  the  Western  Empire 
(1898),  102-103,  109-10,  112,  117-18,  142-43,  151-55, 
167,  361,  374.  Cf.  Seeck,  Geschichte  des  Untergangs 
der  antiJcen  Welt,  II,  165-67) . 

5.  Ideals  fostered  by  military  despotism,  stimulated  by 

the  mania  for  wealth. 


4:2  GENERAL  SOCIOLOGY. 

a.  Among  the  Turks  as  compared  with  the  Armenians 

(Ferrero,  Militarism,  139  ff.,  145,  158-59). 
&.  Rise  of  higher  modern  ideals  (ilid.,  293  ff.,  298,  299). 
6.  Illustration  of  the  variety  of  human  wants  and  ideals 
(R.  L.  Stevenson,  ''The  Lantern-Bearers,"  in  Works, 
XV,  235-49). 

B.  Race  and  the  Evolution  of  Desires. 
I.  Is  the  Difference  in  Culture  and  in  the  So-called  Character- 
istics  of   Races   Due   to    Inherent   or    Inherited    Ca- 
pacity; or  is  the  Difference  Due  to  Diverse  Environ- 
ment, Experience,  Training,  Institutions? 

1.  The  view  of  Jhering  {Evolution  of  the  Aryan  (1897), 

69-70,  148-49.  Compare  Vacher  de  Lapouge,  L'Aryen: 
son  Role  Social   (1899). 

2.  The  view  of  Ward  (ylpplied  Sociology,  107  ff.,  236,  156 

ff.,  95  ff.,  passim). 

3.  The  view  of  Pearson    (National   Life   and   Character, 

chap.  i). 

4.  The  view  of  Lippert:  "active  and  passive"  races  (Eul- 

turgescliichte,  I,  37  ff.,  43  ff.). 

5.  The  view  of  Sir  Henry  Maine:  "progi-essive  and  non- 

progi-essive"  races  {Ancient  Law,  chap.  ii). 

6.  The  view  of  Darmesteter  {Selected  Essays,  155-77). 

7.  The  view  of  Reid  {Principles  of  Heredity  (1905),  289- 

300)  :  race  mental  traits  mainly  acquired. 

8.  The  view  that  psychic  race-characteristics  are  mainly 

heriditary  (Michaelis,  Prinzipien  der  natiirlichen  und 
sozialen  Enticicklungsgeschichte,  Y,  57-87;  especially 
Closson,  "Hierarchy  of  the  European  Races,"  in  A.  J. 
S.,  Ill,  314-27,  314.  Cf.  Bagehot,  Physics  and  Poli- 
tics (Humboldt  Library,  1880),  67-70,  83-87;  Le  Bon, 
The  Croivd,  43,  91-92;  Greef,  in  A.  J.  S..  VIII,  779- 
811,  especially  785-98). 

9.  The  view  that  psychic  race-characteristics  are  mainly 

due  to  social  conditions  (Gulick,  Evolution  of  the 
Japanese,  21,  425-26,  passim;  especially  Thomas, 
"Province  of  Social  Psychology,"  in  A.  J.  S.,  X,  445- 
55,  especially  451-54;  idem.  Sex  and  Society;  and 
Ward,  as  above  cited). 

10.  Importance   of  will,    character,    in    social    evolution; 


FACTORS  AND  CAUSES.  43 

Bryce,  Studies  in  History  and  Jurisprudence,  1,  59-62, 
II,  1-48,  especially  15-10  (Obedience). 

II.  Desires  among  African  Natives. 

1.  Results   of   contact   with   Europeans   in    South   Africa 

(South  African  '^^ative  Races  Committee,  Natives  of 
South  Africa,  1901,  229-50). 

2.  Results  of  Contact  of  Southern  Xegroes  (slaves)   with 

western  culture  in  the  United  States  (Laws,  'The  Ne- 
groes of  Cinclare  Central  Factory  and  Calumet  Plan- 
tation,    Louisiana,''     in     Bulletin     of     Bureau     of 
■      Lahor,  VII,  1902,  No.  38,  pp.  95-120,  especially  117-20) . 

3.  General  results  of  contact  with  European  civilization 

(Reinsch,  in  A.  J.  8.,  II,  145-67). 

III.  Desires  among  the- Hebrews  (Darmesteter.  ''Race  and 
Tradition,-'  in  Selected  Essaijs  (1898),  155-77.  Cf.  Renan, 
History  of  the  People  of  Israel,  Y,  272-73;  Barton,  Semitic 
Origins,  1-29,  28,  41-45). 

IV.  Desires  as  Influenced  by  Environment  among  the  Arabs 
(Bedawi)  :  Origin  of  Semitic  Traits  in  General  (Barton, 
Semitic  Origins,  1-29,  28). 

V.  Desires  of  Turk  and  Armenian  (Ferrero,  Militarism,  154- 
55,  passim). 

VI.  Desires  among  Papuans  (Ke  and  Aru  Islands)  as  Con- 
trasted with  those  of  Malays  (Wallace,  Malay  Archipelago, 
II,  170-78,  193,  206-207,  232-40,  324-25,  442-43,  440-48. 

VII.  E^rly  Evolution  of  Higher  Desires  among  the  Greeks 
(Keller,  Homeric  Society,  299). 

VIII.  Filipino  and  Chinaman  (Clark,  "Labor  Conditions  in 
the  Philippines,"  in  Bulletin  of  Bureau  of  Labor,  No. 
58,  pp.  721-905). 

Section  XIII.     The  Influence  of  Environment  as  a  Factor 
IN  Social  Phenomena  :  Mesology. 

I.  Theory  of  Environment  (in  Narrow  Sense)  as  a  Factor  in 
Racial  and  Social  Evolution  (for  the  history,  see  Greef, 
in  A.  J.  /S.,  IX,  246-58). 

1.  The  true  science  of  mesology  distinguishes  between  the 
objective  and  the  subjective  environment  or  character 
(Dealey  and  Ward,  34-35,  178-79,  210-12;  Ward,  Pure 
Sociology,  58,  178  ff.). 


44  GENERAL  SOCIOLOGY. 

a.  Heredity  and  var:?.tIon  in  the  animal  stage  of  organic 
evolution.  "The  environment  transforms  the 
animal." 

&.  Heredity  and  variation  in  the  human  stage  of  or- 
ganic evolution :  ''Man  transforms  the  environ- 
ment" (Ward,  Pure  Sociology,  16-17)  :  resistance  of 
both  heredity  and  intellect. 

2.  Real  importance  of  mesolog;\'. 

a.  Physical  effects   (Ward,  58,  178  ff.). 
6.  Psychic  effects. 
c.  Social  effects. 

3.  Kinds  of  environment  in  the  broad  sense. 

a.  Physical :     Altitude,  humidity,  temperature,  quality 

of  soil,  etc. 
6.  Local :  Such  as  urban,  rural,  etc. 

c.  Racial  or  ethnic. 

d.  Social:      Institutions    and    other    social    conditions: 

sometimes  they  account  for  physical  characteristics. 

e.  Economic :      Riches    or    poverty ;   sometimes  causes 

physical  changes. 

f.  Education  :     School-training  or  its  equivalent, 

g.  Religious,  etc.    (see  the  results  of  Odin's  researches 

in  his  Genise  des   Orands  Hommes;  or  in  Ward, 
Applied  Sociology). 

4.  Environment  and  Weissmann's  theory :    The  two  evolu- 

tions. 
II.  Illustrations  of  the  Influence  of  Environment. 
1.  Topography  or  geographical  condition. 

a.  Mode  of  administration  in  Mexico  (Guerrero,  Gene- 
sis del  Crimen  en  Mexico  (1901)  ;  reviewed  by  Starr 
in  A.  J.  S.,  IX,  712-16). 

6.  Social  or  national  type  (Demolins,  Comment  la 
Route  crie  le  Type.  Compare  his  Les  Francais 
d'Aujourd'hui;  and  Bryce,  in  Contemp.  Review 
(1886),  XLIX.  431-32  (routes  of  commerce  and 
travel)  ;  W.  D.  Babington,  Fallacies  of  Race 
Theories  as  applied  to  National  Characteristics 
(1895)  ;  reviewed  by  Cliffe-Leslie,  in  Fort.  Rev.. 
XVI,  753). 

c.  The  historical  development  of  peoples  as  revealed  by 
the  new  geography  which  is  the  "study  of  the  en- 


FACTORS  AND   CAUSES.  45 

vironment  of  man"  (Ripley,  "GeogTai)liy  as  a  So- 
ciological Study,"  in  Pol.Sc.  Quart.  (1895),  X, 
630-55;  Bryce,  "'The  Relation  of  History  and  Geog- 
raphy," in  Content  J).  Revieto  (1886),  XLIX,  426-43; 
Ratzel,  Amthro  1)0- Geo  graphic  (1882)  ;  ideni^  Polit- 
ische  Geographie;  oder,  die  Geographie  der 
Staaten,  des  Verlcehres,  mid  des  Krieges  (1903). 

d.  Rise  of  cities  (Ratzel,  ''Die  geogi'aphisehe  Lage  der 

grossen  Stiidte,"  in  Die  Grossstadt,  34-72). 

e.  Barbarian  ''enclaves"  (Bryce,  Studies  in  History  and 

Jurisprudence,  I,  24-26). 

2.  Influence  of  climatic  conditions. 

a.  Humidity,  temperature,  wind  (Hann,  Handhoolc  of 
Climatology  (1903),  56-7,  67,  141;  Weyl,  "Labor 
Conditions  in  Mexico,"  in  Bulletin,  No.  38,  Vol. 
YII  (1902),  especially  13-14). 

h.  Influences  on  industry  (Ripley,  op.  cit.,  650-51). 

3.  Influence  of  soil  and  geological  formation ;  products. 
a.  Role    of    maize    in    America     (Payne,    History    of 

America,    I;    reviewed    by    Giddings,    in    Pol.    Sc. 
Quart.,  Yin,  7SS). 
&.  Role  of  the  date-palm  in  Arabia  and  in  Babylon ;  its 
connection  with  the  origin  of  Semitic  clan    (Bar- 
ton, .Semitic  Origins.  30,  33,  38-39,  90  ff.,  95,  159). 

c.  Role  of  beech-tree  (Taylor,  in  Knowledge,  Nov.,  1889; 

and  British  Ass.  for  Ad.  of  Sc,  1889,  p.  782;  Ripley, 
op.  cit.,  650-51). 

d.  Origin  of  Hebrew  desire  for  trade  (Kent.  History  of 

Hebrew  People  (1899),  III,  38-39:  Effect  of  change 
from  Palestine  to  Mesopotamia). 

e.  Relative  effects  of  kinds  of  rock-formation  on  insti- 

tutions of  Brittany  and  the  Department  of  the 
Marne  (Riplej*,  op.  cit.,  653). 

f.  Mineral  deposits. 

4.  Relative  effect   of  mountain   environment   in    creating 

and  conserving  ideas  and  institutions. 

a.  Persistence  of  religious  and  social  customs  in  Tyrol 
and  the  Salzberg;  also  in  Auvergne  (Leslie,  Essays 
in  Pol.  and  Moral  Philosophy,  414-37). 

6.  Causes  of  Kentucky  feuds  (MacClintock,  "The  Ken- 
tucky Mountains  and  Their  Feuds,"  in  A.  J.  8., 
VII,' 1-28,  171-87). 


46  GENERAL  SOCIOLOGY. 

c.  Diverse  effects   of  mountains,   plains,   oases,  vrater- 
commiinication,   and   steam   transportation    in   the 
building  and  transformation  of  gi-oups,  creeds,  in- 
dustries, etc.  (Hogarth,  The  Nearer  East,  266,  178, 
180,  184-85,  186,  228,  232,  235,  246-47,  251,  258,  265, 
270,  272,  273,  278-79,  passim). 
5.  Influence  of  environment  on  the  size  of  social  groups 
and    the    process    of    social    aggregation    in    general 
r Greet,  in  A.  J.  B.,  IX,  69-104,  226-8^0,  especially  97-98, 
100,  88,  91,  246-58,  giving  a  history  of  theory  of  the 
influence  of  the  environment,  X,  64-80). 

REFERENCES. 

Seligman,  Principles  of  Economics,  36-48  (nature  of  environment) ; 
Ratzel,  "Studies  in  Political  Areas,"  in  A.  J.  8.,  Ill,  297-310,  449-63, 
especially  297,  449,  IV,  366-79,  especially  366;  Roberts,  Anthracite  Coal 
Communities,  8,  9,  passim;  Payne,  History  of  America,  I,  especially 
294-303,  316-21,  328-29,  349,  364,  368-73;  Seeck,  GescMchte  des  Unter- 
gangs  der  antilcen  Welt,  I,  192-94;  Jhering,  Evolution  of  the  Aryan, 
Book  II  (Aryans  and  Semites) ;  Rowe,  The  United  States  and  Porto 
Rico  tDith  Special  Reference  to  the  Problems  arising  out  of  our  Con- 
tact with  the  Spanish-American  Civilization  (1904);  Bageliot,  Physics 
and  Politics;  Guyot,  Earth  and  Man  (1868);  idem.  The  Earth  and 
its  Inhabitants  (1869);  Ripley,  Races  of  Europe;  Winsor  (Justin), 
The  Mississippi  Basin;  Babington,  Fallacies  of  Race  Theories  as  ap- 
plied to  National  Characteristics  (1895) ;  Beddoe,  Races  of  Britain. 

For  a  bibliography,  see  Seligman,  36;   and  consult  the  footnotes  ia 
Ripley's  article  in  Pol.  Sc.  Quarterly,  X,  654-55. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

THE   SOCIAL   PROCESSES.* 


Section  XIV.     Preliminary  Processes  or  Potential 

Socialization. 

A.  Cleaning    of    Social    Assimilation    (compare    Dealey    and 
Ward,  17G-98;  and  Ward,  Pure  Sociology,  193-220). 

I.  General    Character    of   the    Preliminary    Processes    (Ross, 
Foundations,  89-90,  95-96 ;  idem,  in  A.  J.  8.,  X,  470-72 ;  idem 
in  Congress  of  Arts  and  Science,  V,  880-82 ;  Thomas,  in  A.  J. 
S.,  X,  447,  450  ff.   (planes,  parallelism;  idem,  in  Congress 
of  Arts  and  Science,  V,  862  if. ) . 

1.  Are  these  processes  not  "strictly  social"? 

2.  The^-   are  mainly   spontaneous   rather   than   purposive 

(compare  Ross,  Foundations,  95;  Small,  GcQieral  So- 
ciology, 207  ff.;  Simons,  in  A.  J.  S.,  VI,  793,  796-99). 

II.  Views  as  to  the  Nature  of  Assimilation  (Simons,  in  A.  J. 
S.,YI,790n.). 

1.  As  to  its  relative  importance  as  a  social  fact   (Gum- 

plowicz,  Rassenkampf,  254;  Ratzenhofer,  Die  So- 
ciologische  Erkemitniss:  Novicow,  Les  Luttes,  128; 
Ross.  Social  Control,  339). 

2.  Definitions. 

a.  That  of  Giddings  {Principles,  49,  70). 
I).  That  of  Novicow  (Les  Luttes,  128-152). 

c.  That  of  Burgess   (Pol.  Sc.  and  Comp.  Const.  Laiv, 

I,  2). 

d.  That  of  Simons:  '-'A  process  due  to  prolonged  con- 

tact; figuratively  a  process  by  which  the  aggrega- 
tion of  peoples  is  changed  from  a  mere  mechanical 
mixture  into  a  chemical  compound"  {A.  J.  S.,  VI, 
791-92). 

3.  In  form,  assimilation  may  be 

a.  Peaceable,  perhaps  being  the  earlier. 

T).  Warlike  or  forcible:  role  of  conquest  with  "result- 

*In  the  main,  following  Ross's  Analysis. 

(47) 


48  GENERAL  SOCIOLOGY. 

ing  amalgamation  and  assimilation  of  heterogeneous 
ethnic  elements" ;  of  slavery. 

4.  In  mode  of  action,  it  may  be 

a.  Spontaneous  or  unconscious :  role  of  contact,  hered- 
ity, adoption?  This  is  essentially  the  ''prelimin- 
ary" process. ' 

&.  Purposive  or  conscious. 

5.  The  essential  prerequisites  of  the  process  of  assimila- 

tion are 

ff.  Psychic :  "consciousness  of  kind"  or  "potential  fel- 
lowship" (Giddings,  Principles,  17;  Gumplowicz, 
Rassenkampf,  244;  Mayo-Smith,  "Assimilation  of 
Nationalities  in  the  U.  S.,"  in  Political  Sc.  Qiiar- 
terhj,  IX,  431;   Simons,  in  A.  J.  S.,  VI,  798-99). 

Z>.  Social:  that  is  contact  through  intercourse;  accom- 
plished. 

1)  Through  physical  means  of  communication;  or 

2)  Through  psychic  means  of  communication;  assimi- 

lation is  a  psychological  rather  than  a  biological 
process  (Simons,  in  A.  J.  S.,  VI,  801-803). 

6.  Assimilation  has  two  elements :  the  active  and  the  pas- 

sive.    Their  relative  influence  depends  on  three  fac- 
tors (Simons,  VI,  803-807). 

a.  Relative  culture  state, 

&.  Relative  mass. 

c.  Relatively  intensity  of  race-consciousness. 

B.  Kinds  of  Prelimitiary  Processes. 

I.  Assimilation  by  Environment  (cf.  Simons,  in  A.  J.  8.,  VI, 
815-16;  Ward,  Pure  Sociology,  178,  180,  Index;  Giddings, 
Principles,  82  &.,  120-21). 

1.  Influence  of  physical  environment,  of  certain  areas  in 

differentiating  animal  species,  and  especially  man 
(Ward,  in  A.  J.  >S'.,  VII,  721-29)  ;  Greef's  theory 
of  "Social  Frontiers,"  in  A.  J.  S.,  IX,  G90-702,  832-39, 
X,  64-80,  228-44,  53143  (especially  541-42),  766-86,  XI, 
60-74,  219-28,  409-21,  663-80). 

2.  Role  of  memory  and  cunning  (inventive  power)   in  so- 

cial differentiation  (Ward,  in  A.  J.  8.,  VIII,  723-26)  ; 
resulting  products  (Simons,  in  A.  J,  8..  VI,  797). 


THE   SOCIAL   PROCESSES.  49 

a.  Diverse  races  or  ethnic  groups  in  diverse  areas. 

6.  Languages. 

c.  Manners,  customs,  ceremonies,  beliefs. 

3.  Social  integration. 

a.  Sequence  of  cannibalism,  conquest  with  extermina- 
tion, conquest  with  slavery,  industrial  class. 

&.  Race-integration ;  the  variety  of  influences  producing 
present  race-diff'erences;  will  there  result  one  per- 
fected world-race?     (Ward,  op.  cit.,  729-45). 

4.  Illustrations  of  assimilation  by  environment. 

a.  Influence  of  the  desert  in  the  evolution  of  the  Semitic 
ethnic  type  (Barton,  Semitic  Origins,  271-73,  30-39, 
74-79,  179  ff. ;  Hogarth,  ^^earer  East,  255-59). 

1)  "Meagerness,"  the  Arab  chai^cteristic. 

2)  Assimilation,  a  preparation  for  the  culture-stage 

of  Mahomet. 

&.  Influence  of  routes  of  commerce;  mission  of  the 
Phoenicians  and  the  Jews  in  assimilation  (Keller, 
Homeric  Society,  1-28,  especialy  21-24;  Bryce,  in 
Contemporary  Revieio  (1886),  XLIX,  431-32;  and 
compare  idem,  Studies  in.  History  and  Jurispru- 
dence I,  308,  265-68;  Simons,  in  A.  J.  S.,  VI,  799- 
800). 

c.  Influence  of  ethnic  and  local  environment  among  na- 
tives of  Celebes;  assimilation  .encouraged  by  mis- 
sionaries (Wallace,  Malay  Archipelago,  I,  411). 

II.  Assimilation  by  Occupation  and  Mode  of  Life. 

III.  Assimilation  by  ''Dialectic  of  Personal  Growth"  (Ross^ 
Foundations,  95.  Compare  Cooley,  Human  Mature,  20  ff.; 
and  Baldwin,  Social  and  Ethical  Interpretation,  13-65). 

IV.  Assimilation  by  Culture  and  Education. 

1.  Influence  of  Rome  on  Gaul  (Fustel  de  Coulanges,  His- 

toire  des  Inst.  Politiques,  I,  5-7). 

2.  Influence  of  culture  among  the  Greeks;  the  institution 

of  guest  friendship  (Seebohm,  Greek  Trihal  Society, 
99-100;  Simons,  in  A.  J.  S.,  VII,  59  ff.;  Keller,  ffo- 
meric  Society,  1  ff.,  21-24,  292-314,  especially  298-99, 
303-306)  :  the  original  strong  "syngenetic"  feeling  was 
modified  before  Homer. 

3.  Cultural  results  of  conquest  (Simons,  in  A.  J.  S.,  VII, 

56). 
4 


50  GENERAL  SOCIOLOGY. 

4.  Influence  of  culture  among  the  ancient  Irish    (Joyce, 

Social  History  of  Ancient  Ireland,  418-22) . 

5.  Influence  of  culture  on  the  Japanese   (Gulick,  Evolu- 

tion of  the  Japanese,  435-37,  passim). 

6.  Limits  to  assimilation  by  culture  (Zenker,  Die  Gesell- 

scJiaft,  I,  152). 

7.  Other  illustrations  (Demolins,  Les  Francais  cFAujour- 

d'hui,  218-23;  Bryce,  Studies  in  History  and  Jur.,  I, 
308,  265-66;  Wallace,  Malay  Archipelago,  I,  35-36, 
241;  Jhering,  Evolution  of  the  Aryan,  3,  25;  Zenker, 
Die  Gesellschaft,  I,  150,  148-49;  Gulick,  Evolution  of 
Japanese,  435,  437,  passim;  Seeck,  Untergangs,  I,  195, 
223-24,  263). 

V.  Products  of  the  Preliminary  Processes   (See  Ross's  "Map 
of  the  Sociological  Field"). 

REFERENCES. 

Simons  (S.  E.),  "Social  Assimilation,"  in  A.  J.  8.,  VI,  790-822,  VII, 
53-79,  234-48,  386-404,  539-56:  the  only  monograph  on  the  subject;  read 
the  article  in  vol.  VI  in  studying  the  "preliminary  process,"  though 
much  of  it  relates  to  the  later  and  "conscious"  process,  and  note  the 
bibliography  in  VII,  551-56;  Ward,  "Social  Differentiation  and  Social 
Integration,"  in  A.J.  S.,  VIII,  721-45;  Ross,  "Problems  of  Social  Psychol- 
ogy," in  A.  J.  S.,  X,  456-72,  especially  470-72;  or  the  same  in  Congress 
of  Arts  and  Science,  V;  Zenker,  Die  Gesellschaft,  I,  145-52;  Bagehot, 
Physics  and  Politics,  81-155  (nation-making) ;  Bryce,  "Action  of  Cen- 
tripetal and  Centrifugal  Forces  on  Political  Institutions,"  in  Studies, 
I,  255-311;  Ross,  Foundations,  Index  at  "Environment,"  "Assimila- 
tion," "Occupation";  Small,  General  Sociology,  Index  at  "Process," 
"Environment";  "Ward,  P?/ re  Sociology.  19Z-220.  and  Index  at  "Assimila- 
tion," "Environment";  Fairbanks,  71  ff.;  Thomas,  "Province  of  Social 
Psychology,"  in  A.  J.  8.,  X,  445-55;  or  the  same  in  Congress  of  Arts 
and  Science,  V. 

Many  of  the  references  given  in  Section  XIII  of  the  Syllabus  are 
available  to  illustrate  "Assimilation  by  environment." 


Section  XY.     The  Genesis  of  Society. 
A.  What  is  Social  Process? 

I.  Definitions  or  Conceptions  of  Social  Process  (Ross,  Founda- 
tions, 90;  Small,  General  Sociology,  240,  176,  188,  Index  at 
"Process,  Social";  Ratzenhofer,  Sociologische  Erhenntmss, 
221,  244,  passim;  Giddings,  Principles,  75,  363,  376;  Cooley, 
Human  Nature,  272,  333,  119  ff . ;  Fairbanks,  141  ff.). 

II.  Relation  to  ''Social  Structure"   (Small,  132,  176  531,  and 


THE   SOCIAL   PROCESSES.  51 

Index  at  "Structure,  Social";  Grasserie,  Essai,  243-263; 
Dealej  and  Ward,  167-G9;  Ward,  Pure  Sociology,  180,  183- 

85,  175-76,  15,  113,  114,  and  Index;  idem,  in  Congress  of 
Arts  and  Science,  V,  842-55;  Tonnies,  in  Congress  of  Arts 
and  Science,  V,  825-41). 

III.  Relation  to  ''Social  Function"  (Small,  531,  176,  217,  In- 
dex at  "Functions";  Ward,  Pure  Sociology,  15,  180,  175,  232, 
308;  id&m,  Dynamic  Sociology,  I,  701,   119,  468-69;   Ross, 

86,  272-75;  Fairbanks,  91  ft'.,  119  flf.). 

IV.  Do  the  Social  Processes  Constitute  "Association"? 

B.  Analysis  of  the  Genetic  Processes. 

I.  Primary  Association. 

1.  By  multiplication. 

a.  Consanguine  (genetic)  multiplication:  horde,  tribe, 
clan,  family  ( Howard,  Local  Const.  History,  I,  1 
If.;  idem,  ^Matrimonial  Inst.,  I,  12  ff). 

I).  Differentiation :  formation  of  new  societies :  "multi- 
plication by  division"  (Ward,  in  A.  J.  S.,  VIII, 
723;  idem,  Pure  Sociology,  205;  Dealey  and  Ward, 
185;  Ratzenhofer,  109). 

2.  By  congi'egation :  artificial  clans  or  other  societies ;  or 

those  partially  formed  of  heterogeneous  elements 
(see  Howard.  Matrimonial  Inst.,  I,  12  ff.,  296  ff. ; 
Hearn,  Aryan  Household;  Lyall,  Asiatic  Studies, 
chap.  vii).  These  groups  may  also  "multiply  by 
division." 

a.  The  union  may  be  free:  by  alliance. 

h.  The  union  may  be  constrained:  by  conquest. 

3.  Note:     Value  of  Giddings'   theory   of  the   "most  ele- 

mentary form  of  the  social  relation"?  (Principles, 
17  ff.;  especially  idem,  in  A.  J.  S.,  X,  163-66;  or  in 
Congress  of  Arts  and  Science,  V,  789  ff. ;  idem,  Desc. 
and  Hist.  Soc,  275  ff.) . 

II.  Secondary  Association  or  Conjugation :  That  is  the  Union, 
"Amalgamation,"  "Compounding,"  or  "Integration"  of  Ex- 
isting Societies  or  Social  Groups. 

1.  The  component  societies  may  have  been  formed  either 

by  multiplication  or  congregation  or  by  both. 

2.  The   component   societies   may    continue  to  expand  by 


52  GENERAL  SOCIOLOGY. 

genetic  and  congregate  gi'owth  (see  Sec,  VIII  above 
on  ''Movement  of  Popnlation"). 
3.  The  process  of  conjugation  (the  "race-integration"  of 
Ward)  may  embrace  the  recompoiinding  of  compound 
societies  (see  Ward,  in  A.  J.  8.,  VIII,  729  ff.,  736  fif. 
("A  Sociological  Utopia").  Compare  Greef,  in  A. 
J.  8.,  X,  531-43,  especially  542). 

III.  Colonization  as  a  Phase  of  Multiplication  and  Differentia- 
tion of  Societies. 

C.  Psychological  Classification  of  Societies  (Giddings,  in  A. 
J.  S.,  X,  166-70 ;  or  Congress  of  Arts  and  Science,  V,  791  flf. ; 
idem,  Desc.  and  Hist.  Soc,  4-64). 

I.  Instinctive  Societies  :  Animal  Societies.  Query  :  Are  Animal 
Societies  ever  Partially  "Rational"? 

II.  Rational  Societies:  Human  Societies;  but  These  show  a 
Combination  of  Instinct  and  Reason,  the  latter  element 
more  and  more  proponderating  as  evolution  advances.  Hu- 
man societies  may  be  classified  as : 

1.  Mainly  spontaneous;  varies  in  attitude  toward  stran- 

gers. 
a.  Sympathetic,   homogeneous  group  of  blood-kindred; 

exclusive;    tends    to    regard    the    stranger  as  an 

enemy. 
6.  Congenial    homogeneous    group    of    the    like-minded 

(sects,  communal  societies,  etc)  ;  exclusive;  rejects 

those  not  like-minded. 

c.  Approbative    heterogeneous    group;    sometimes    law- 

less; usually  tolerant   (mining-camps,  cattle-range, 
etc.). 

2.  Mainly  artificial:  consciously  planned;  usually  hetero- 

geneous;  compound;   formed  by  conquest  or  federa- 
tion. 

d.  Despotic  or  frontier :  repellent  and  inhospitable  to 

strangers    (Russia,    Turkey,    Ancient    Mexico,    An- 
cient Peru,  etc.). 

e.  Authoritative:  sanctioned  by  tradition;  divine  right. 

f.  Conspirital :  formed  by  disruption  of  old  societies  by 

force,  intrigue,  etc. 

g.  Contractual:  usually  tolerant  toward  strangers;  the 


THE   SOCIAL   PROCESSES.  53 

United  States  and  the  doctrine  of  expatriation  and 
naturalization. 
h.  Idealistic. 

D.  Theories  of  Society  Dependent  on  the  Various  Classes  as 
Above  Descrihed  (Giddings,  in  A.  J.  8.,  X,  169-70). 

I.  Totemistic  Theory :  From  the  Instinctive. 

II.  Brotherhood  Theory:  (Zoon  Politikon)  :  From  the  Sym- 
pathetic. 

III.  Consciousness  of  Kind  Theories :     From  the  Congenial. 

IV.  Natural  Justice  Theories :    From  the  Approbational. 

V.  Political  Sovereignty  Theories:  From  the  Despotic: 
''Might  makes  Right.". 

VI.  Divine  Right  Theories :     From  the  Authoritative. 

VII.  Machiavellian  Theories  of  Inevitableness  of  Intrigue  and 
Conspiracy:    From  the  Conspirital. 

VIII.  Social  Compact  Theories :  From  the  Contractual 
(Those  of  Hobbes,  Locke,  Rousseau,  etc.). 

IX.  Utopian  Theories:  From  the  Idealistic  (Those  of  Plato, 
More,  Harrington,  Bellamy,  etc.). 

E.  Illustrations  of  the  Genetic  Processes, 

I.  Multiplication  (Payne,  History  of  America,  II,  43-51,  2^(is- 
si}n:  Ward,  Pure  Sociology,  Index;  Bagehot,  Physics  and 
Politics,  195-99 ;  Giddings,  Principles,  79  ff. ;  idem,  Desc.  and 
Hist.  Soc,  74-76). 

II.  Congregation  (Payne,  op.  cit.,  II,  49-50,  44;  Kovalewsky, 
Mod.  Customs  and  A,nc.  Laios  of  Russia;  Prutz,  Kulturge- 
schichte  der  Kreuzziige.  99,  105-107,  180  ff. ;  Fustel  de  Cou- 
langes.  Hist,  des  Inst.  Pol..  I,  Book  III,  chaps,  v,  vi,  vii, 
viii,  especially  450-54,  II,  276;  Giddings,  Principles,  91  ff.; 
idem,  Desc.  and  Hist.  Soc,  11  ff.,  90). 

III.  Conjugation  (Greef.  in  A.  J.  S..  X,  531-43;  Fustel  de 
Coulanges,  op.  cit.,  I,  Book  III,  chap,  viii  (relation  of  Ger- 
mans with  the  Gallic  population),  450-64;  Payne,  op.  cit..  II, 
50-52;  Barton,  Semitic  Origins,  162,  172-73,  176,  272-73,  277- 
78;  Ward,  in  A.  J.  S..  \U.  721-45,  727-28;  idem,  Pure  So- 
ciology, 205,  310 ;  Riggs,  Hist,  of  tJie  Jewish  People,  155-56 ; 
Arnold,  Roman  Provincial  Administration,  10-14,  17-18, 
30-35;  Bryce,  Studies  in  Hist,  and  Jurisprudence,  I,  245, 


54  GENERAL  SOCIOLOGY. 

255  ff.,  260,  263,  303-308,  321-22  (peaceable  conjugation)  ; 
Bagehot,  Physics  and  Politics,  41  ff.,  81  fif. ;  Diinlop,  ''Ire- 
land," in  Camh.  Mod.  Hist.,  Ill,  chap,  xviii,  579-616,  588, 
598-605 ;  Coste,  L'Experience  des  Peuples,  562-64 ;  Kropotkin, 
Mutual  Aid,  204-208  (conjugation  by  alliance)  ;  Blackie, 
Scottish  Eighlanders,  127-28;  Ross,  Foundations,  249-53; 
Dealey  and  Ward,  84,  194;  much  m  Simons's  work  on  As- 
similation; Grasserie,  Essai,  285  ff.). 
IV.  Colonization  (Collier,  "The  Theory  of  Colonization,''  in  A. 
J.  8.,  XI,  252-65;  idem,  ''The  Evolution  of  Colonies,"  in  Pop. 
Sc.  Monthlij,  LIII  (1898),  289-307,  452-66,  620-33,  806-808, 
LIV;  Keller,  ''The  Value  of  the  Study  of  Colonies  for  So- 
ciology," in  A.  J.  8.,  XII,  417-20 ;  Ward,  Dynamic  Sociology, 
I,  339-40). 

GENERAL  REFERENCES. 

Ward,  "Social  Differentiation  and  Integration,"  in  A.  J.  S.,  VIII, 
721-45;  Simons,  in  A.  J.  S.,  VI,  VII,  as  cited  in  preceding  section  of 
this  Syllabus;  Ross,  Foundations.  95-96,  98,  249-253  (conjugation); 
Giddings,  in  A.  J.  S.,  X,  161-170;  or  the  same  in  Congress  of  Arts  and 
Science,  V,  787-94;  Zenker,  Die  Gesellschaft,  I,  152-73  (conjugation); 
Novicow,  Les  Luttes,  82  ff.,  358-402;  Eleutheropolis,  Soziologie,  26-51; 
Cairnes,  Slave  Poicer  (causes  of  development  of  slave  societies). 

Note  that  Gumplowicz,  Ratzenhofer,  Novicow,  and  all  the  "strug- 
gle" theorists  have  given  a  vast  amount  of  material  for  the  conjuga- 
tion of  races.  Ratzenhofer  is  analyzed  at  great  length  by  Small.  See 
also  Dealey  and  Ward,  as  above  cited,  and  Giddings,  Descxiptive  and 
Historical  Sociology,  72  ff.,  304  ff. 


Section  XVI.     Association. 

Definition  and  Limitation  of  Association  (Giddings,  Prin- 
ciples, 100,  400 ;  Ross,  Foundations,  4,  5 ;  Small,  217,  501  ff., 
305;  Dealey  and  Ward,  22  fif. ;  Ward,  Pure  Sociology,  14,  244, 
389,  511). 

1.  As  essentially   a   psychic   process   conditioned   by   the 

physical  process,  it  is  distinguished  from  the  phe- 
nomena of  aggregation. 

2.  Its  evolution  begins  in  simple  phases  of  feeling  and  per- 

ception and  "develops  through  many  complications, 
into  activities  that  ultimately  call  forth  the  highest 
powers  of  the  mind"  (Giddings,  op.  cit.,  100). 

3.  Therefore,    abstractly    considered,    it    represents    phe 

nomena  subsequent  to  those  considered  under  "pre- 
liminary   processes"    and    "genesis    of    society";    al- 


THE  SOCIAL  PROCESSES.  55 

though  in  time,  for  the  same  social  population,  all 
three  of  these  groups  of  processes  overlap,  and  are 
constantly  arising. 
II.  Factors  or  Elements  of  the  Associational  Process. 

1.  Communication  (Giddings,  Principles,  102-16;  idem,  In- 

ductive Sociology,   111   ff. ;    Cooley,   Human  Nature, 
45-101;  Shaler,  The  Neighbor,  36-40,  204  ff.   (''condi- 
tions of  the  contacts  of  men")  ;  Tarde,  Logique  »%- 
dale,  323    (covenants)  ;  Payne,  Hist,  of  America,  1, 
482,  484-86   (covenants  of  gods  and  men). 
a.  Meeting  or  encounter:  a  psycho-physical  phenomenon 
(Giddings,  Principles,  104-109;  idem.  Inductive  So- 
ciology,   93    ff. ;    Kropotkin,    Mutual   Aid,    90-114; 
Tarde,  Logique  Sociale,  320;  Shaler,  TJie  Neighbor, 
260  ff.,  295-98,  279-81,  290-93;  Thomas,  ''Psychology 
of  "Race-Prejudice,"  in  A.  J.  8.,  IX,  593-611 ;  Guyau, 
Non-Religion,  Part  III,  chap,  i;  Zenker,  Die  Gesell- 
schaft,  60-71). 

1)  Perception  of  unlikeness. 

2)  Perception  of  likeness. 

l.  Imitation  (Giddings,  109-16). 

1)  Tends  to  assimilate  and  harmonize:  custom-imita- 

tion and  mode-imitation  (Tarde,  Laws  of  Imita- 
tion, Index  at  "Imitation";  idem.  Social  Laws, 
11-67) . 

2)  Tends  also  to  create  antagonisms  or  rivalries  of 

imitations :  the  logical  "duel"  and  "invention" 
(Tarde,  Social  Laws,  68  ff. ;  idem.  Laws  of  Imi- 
tation, Index). 

3)  In   the  end   it  produces   toleration,   co-operation, 

and  other  social  structures. 
c.  Development    of    sociability     and     personal      ideas 
(Cooley,  Human  Nature,  45-101). 

2.  Fascination  (Bryce,  Studies,  II,  9-10  (force  of  feeling 

of  deference)  ;  Seeck,  Untergangs,  215-18;  Halsey, 
"Genesis  of  a  Modern  Prophet,"  in  A.  J.  S.,  IX,  310- 
28  (power  of  assurance,  confidence,  and  self-asser- 
tion) ;  Lee,  Cambridge  Modern  History,  III,  363  (the 
spell  of  Elizabeth)  ;  Payne,  Hist,  of  America,  II,  37- 
38  (how  the  chief  gained  ascendancy)  ;  Conway,  "Is 
Parliament  a  Mere  Crowd?"  in  Nineteenth  Century, 


56  GENERAL  SOCIOLOGY. 

LVII,  898-911;  Tarde,  U Opinion  et  la  Foule  (2d  ed., 
1904),  159  ff. ;   idem,  Essais  et  Melanges    (foules  et 
sectes)  ;    Le    Bon,    The    Crowd,    133-60    (leaders    of 
crowds    and    their    means    of    persuasion)  ;    Sighele, 
Psychologie  des  Sectes,  71  ff.). 
3.  Intimidation   (Addams,  Democracy  and  Social  EtMcs. 
33). 
III.  Laws  of  the  Associational  Process  (Giddings,  Principles, 
400-19;  Ross,  Sociul  Control,  325-49). 

A.  Laws  of  the  Psychic  or  Volitional  Process. 

1.  Laws  of  imitation    (with  Giddings,  400-401;  compare 

Cooley,   47   ff.,   and   Ross,   Foundations,   94,    on   the 
limits  of  imitation). 
a.  Imitations  spread  in  geometrical  progression  (Tarde, 

LatDS  of  Imitation,  20). 
6.  Imitations  are  refracted  by  their  media  (Tarde,  Laws 
of  Imitation,  22). 

2.  Laws  of  the  social  choice  of  social  values. 

a.  First  law  or  "law  of  preferences  among  ends  to  be 
achieved";  dependent  upon  the  following  elements 
and  criteria  of  the  ideal  good : 

1)  Personal  force  or  virtue  in  the  original  sense. 

2)  Happiness  with  utility  as  the  criterion :  the  hedon- 

istic or  utiltarian  ideal. 

3)  Integrity:    meaning   ''wholeness"    of   pleasure,    of 

power,  and  of  character. 

4)  Self-realization. 

These  elements  and  criteria  are  subjective;  and 
their  influence  decreases  in  the  order  above  given ; 
"but  if  mental  and  moral  evolution  continues,  the 
higher  ideals  must  become  increasingly  influen- 
tial" (Giddings,  403,  408). 
6.  Second  law  or  law  of  combination  and  means: 

1)  Populations  with  simple  interests  make  conserva- 

tive choices. 

2)  Populations  with  varied  and  inharmoniously  com- 

bined interests  make  radical  choices. 

3)  Populations  with  many  varied  and  harmoniously 

combined  interests  make  consistently  progressive 
choices. 


THE   SOCIAL   PROCESSES.  57 

B.  Laics  of  the  Limitation  of  the  Psychic  Process  by  the  Physi- 
cal Process  (Giddings,  412-19;  especially  Ross,  Social  Con- 
trol, 338-49). 

1.  Law  of  selection :  artificial  selection  is  governed  by  sub- 

jective value  (see  Ross's  analysis  of  the  process). 

2.  Law  of  survival :  survival  is  governed  by  organic  and 

subjective  utility. 

This  law  formulates  objective  physical  conditions  to 
which  the  social  choice  of  the  subjective  values  must 
conform.  Is  it  true  that  society  may  "increase"  the 
diversity  or  ditferentiation  of  the  environment,  but 
cannot  "prevent"  it?  (Compare  Giddings,  413;  with 
Leslie  Stephen,  •  in  Conteinp.  Review,  LXIV,  No.  2, 
August,  1893;  Simon  Patten,  Social  Forces,  12-17; 
Ward,  Applied  Sociology,  130  ff.,  293,  123,  129,  and 
Index;  idem.  Pure  Sociology,  171-84). 
IV.  The  Evolution  of  Desires  Through  the  Development  of  So- 
cial Values. 

A.  Ross's  Theory  of  the  Relation  of  Such  Values  to  Desires 

{Social  Control,  325-Z7). 

1.  Evolution  of  values. 

a.  Spontaneous  generation  of  values :  "reciprocal  sug- 
gestion and  transfusion  of  feeling"  through  inter- 
course; convention. 

6.  Influence  of  the  elite,  of  superior  individuals  (Ross, 
op.  cit.,  328  fit.,  347-49). 

c.  The  force  of  tradition. 

2.  Control  through  social  values   (Ross,  op.  cit.,  330  fif., 

338  ff.). 
a.  Selection  and  preservation  of  qualities  and  ideals. 
6.  Rejection  and  depreciation  of  qualities  and  ideals. 

B.  Examples  of  the  Products  of  Association:  That  is,  of  So- 
cial Values  ami  Desires. 

1.  Desire  for  the  pleasures  of  association  or  sociability : 
the  meaning  of  play? 
a.  Among  animals   (Kropotkin,  Mutual  Aid,  21-31,  42 
(squirrels),  44  (prairie  dogs).  45-46  (hares),  54-55; 


58  GENERAL  SOCIOLOGY. 

Groos,  Play  of  Animals;  Giddings,  Principles,  116- 
17;  Espinas,  Societes  Animales). 

b.  Among  men    (Kropotkin,   90   if.    (savages)  ;    Cooley, 

Human  Nature,  45  ff.  (the  infant)  ;  Giddings,  Prin- 
ciples, 117  fif.). 

2.  Desire  for  approbation  of  public  opinion  and  its  vari- 

ous manifestations  (Cooley,  Human  Nature,  179-321). 
a.  The  social  self  (Cooley,  160,  171,  177-78). 
J).  Recognition    by    others:    ambition     (Cooley,    170); 

vanity    {idem,  203-205)  ;   independence    {idem,  206- 

207). 

c.  Selfishness  (Cooley,  182-83). 

d.  Honor   and   courage    (Cooley,   207   ff.)  ;    controlling 

force  of  honor  among  the  Arabs  (Hogarth,  Nearer 
East,  260)  ;  high  personal  character  dependent  upon 
public  opinion  and  group  honor  (Ross,  Founda- 
tions, 320-21;  Schreiner,  "Stray  Thoughts  on  South 
Africa,"  in  Fortnighthj  Review,  July,  1896.  See  also 
Gulick,  Evolution  of  Japanese;  and  Munro,  Med. 
Cif.,  713-45). 

e.  Pride  (Cooley,  201;  Tarde,  La  Logique  Sociale,  327). 

f.  Hatred    and    sympathy:    the    origin     (Shaler,     The 

Neighhor,  22-27,  264,  269). 

3.  Desire  to  preserve  the  social  order. 

a.  Illustrated  by  Durkheim's  law  of  suicide:  "Suicide 
varies  inversely  with  the  degree  of  integration  of 
the  social  groups  to  which  the  individual  belongs" 
(Durkheim,  Le  Suicide,  223).  Those  firmly  held  in 
the  bonds  of  family  or  group  rarely  commit  suicide 
{idem.,  228.  Cf.  Dumont,  Depopulation  et  Civili- 
sation, 121;  Greef.  in  A.  J.  S.,  IX,  76  fif.). 

1).  Illustrated  by  the  causes  of  the  rise  and  decline  of 
the  evils  of  the  tribal  spirit  (Shaler,  The  Neigh- 
hor, 260-336,  especially  280,  303,  307-36). 

c.  Illustrated  by  the  relaxation  of  conduct  among  half- 
breeds  (Schreiner,  in  Fortnightly  Review,  July, 
1896;  Ross,  Foundations,  320-21). 

GENERAL  REFERENCES. 

Ross,  Social  Control.  225-37,  338-49;  idem.  Foundations.  4,  5,  320-21, 
376-78;  Giddings,  Principles,  400-19,  100-24;  idem.  Inductive  Sociology, 
93  ff. ;    Tarde,  Laws  of  Imitation,   Index;    idem,  Social  Laws,   68   ff. ; 


THE  SOCIAL   PROCESSES.  59 

idem,  Logique  Sociale,  chap,  iv;  Kropotkin,  Mutual  Aid,  88-114  (socia- 
bility among  savages);  Groos,  Play  of  Animals;  Thomas,  "Psychology 
of  Race-Prejudice, "  in  A.  J.  8.,  IX,  593,  611,  an  excellent  article  bearing 
on  the  general  subject  of  the  evolution  of  association;  Roberty,  "Le 
Materialisme  Hist,  ou  Economique,"  in  Annales  de  VInst.,  VIII,  247,  251, 
256;  Patten,  Social  Forces,  12  ff.;  idem,  in  Annals,  III,  129  ff. ;  Tarde, 
Inter-Psychology;  The  Interplay  of  Human  Minds;  Dumont.  Depopu- 
lation et  Civilisation,  121-22  (demoralizing  effects  of  cotitact  of  low 
races  with  civilized). 


Section  XVII.     Domination  and  Exploitation. 

I,  Definitions  and  Principles. 

1.  Meaning  of  ''domination"  as  a  generic  name  of  a  com- 

plex social  process 

2.  Ross's  defiiiition  of  exploitation  :    ''Any  profiting  of  one 

section  of  society  at  the  expense  of  other  sections 
which  v.'onld  disappear  if  the  sections  came  to  be  ap- 
proximately    equal     in     intelligence,     organization, 
leadership,  and  physical  strength." 
a.  Query :  May  there  be  exploitation  of  one  individual 
by  another  individual;  as  there  is  (according  to  the 
definition)  exploitation  of  class  by  class? 
&.  Query :   Ai"e  there  inequalities  of  income  and  prop- 
erty which  are  not  true  forms  of  exploitation? 

II.  Kinds  or  Species  of  Exploitation  as  Differentiated  by  Ross. 

1.  Of  offspring  by  parents  (Sewall,  "Child  Labor  in  the  U. 

S."  in  Bulletin  of  Bureau  of  Labor,  No.  52,  pp.  528- 
32;  see  also  Bulletin,  No.  62  (1906)  ;  Spargo,  Bitter 
Cry  of  the  Children;  and  University  Card  Catalogue 
at  "Child  Labor"). 

2.  Of  women   by   men    (Wallace,   Malay  Archipelago,   I, 

43). 

3.  Of  poor  by  rich  (Blackie,  Scottish  Highlanders.  77-81, 

monopoly  of  kelp  by  the  lairds;  Kovalewsky,  3Iod. 
Customs,  215  If.,  exploitation  of  peasants;  Clark, 
"Labor  Conditions  in  Java,"  in  Bulletin  of  Bureau  of 
Lahor,  No.  58,  pp.  933  ff.). 

4.  Of  the  smaller  number  by  the  larger  number. 

5.  Of  the  industrious  by  the  leisured  (Payne,  Hist,  of  Am. 

II,  21-2.  52-53,  55-56,  57-60). 

6.  Of  the  ignorant  by  the  intelligent. 

7.  Of    the     (physically)     weaker     by     the     (physically) 

stronger. 


60  GENERAL  SOCIOLOGY, 

8.  Of  the  unorganized  by  the  organized. 

9.  Of  those  who  compete  by  those  who  combine. 

10.  Of  the  just  and  sympathetic  by  the  unjust  and  unsym- 

pathetic. 

11.  Of  the  laity  by  the  priests   (Abbott,  Religious  Life  in 

America,  127  and  note  ,1). 

12.  Of  the  governed  by  the  rulers  (Johnson,  Exploitation 

of  Colonies,  31  ff.,  passim;  Hildebrand,  Recht  und 
Sitte,  145-49;  Payne.  History  of  America,  II,  54-56, 
feudalism  in  ancient  Mexico ;  Kropotkin,  Mutual  Aid. 
200,  230,  236;  Fustel  de  Coulanges,  Inst.  Pol.,  Ill,  350- 
53,  390-91,  exploitation  by  the  missus,  lY,  24,  31-33, 
577;  Kent,  Hist,  of  Hehrew  People,  I,  98;  Roberts, 
Anthracite  Coal  Communities,  279-81,  316-42;  Seeck, 
Untergangs,  I,  318,  392-94,  404-406,  II,  new  taxes; 
Arnold,  Roman  Provincial  Adtninistration.  20-28,  73- 
85,08-99,181-82,240). 

13.  Of  less  capable  by   the  more   capable:    note  how   the 

new  invention,  or  acquistion,  or  other  new  good  be- 
comes, at  first,  a  new  means  of  exploitation. 
III.  Ross's  Laws  of  Exploitation. 

1.  ''Other  things  being  the  same,  exploitation  will  be  more 

open,  ruthless,  and  stubborn  between  the  unlike  than 
between  the  like"  (compare  his  ISocial  Control,  25; 
and  his  Foundations,  286). 

2.  ''A  close-knit  group  animated  by  a  class-consciousness 

and  spirit  will  be  more  ruthless  in  exploitation  than 
a  more  loose  collection  of  individuals  will  be"  (com- 
pare his  Social  Control,  71,  75,  86,  346,  and  Founda- 
tions. 288-89). 

3.  "Different  sections  of  society  differ  in  original  disposi- 

tion to  exploit"  (see  Foundations,  286-87). 

4.  ''The  will  to  exploit  lasts  as  long  as  the  power  to  ex- 

ploit" (compare  Kidd,  Social  Evolution,  172-76;  with 
Sombart,  Socialism,  109-10). 

5.  "Whatever  equalizes  classes  in  respect  to  intelligence, 

organization,  numbers,  economic  strength,  physical 
strength,  etc.,  narrows  the  power  of  one  to  exploit 
the  other"  (cf.  Taine,  Ancient  Regime,  Book  IV, 
chap,  iii ;  Ward,  Pure  Sociology,  208-209 ;  Strong,  So- 
cial Progress   (1904)  ;  Dawson,  South  America). 


THE   SOCIAL   PROCESSES.  61 

G.  "The  formation  of  a  population  element  neither  exploit- 
ing nor  exploited  is  apt  to  yield  a  body  of  opinion  sym- 
pathetic with  the  exploited  and  critical  of  the  ex- 
ploiters. The  larger  and  the  more  influential  this 
body  of  neutrals  the  more  exploitation  must  become 
attenuated  and  disguised"  (see  Gumplowicz,  Outlines 
of  Sociology:  Commons,  Trade  Unionism  (on  public 
opinion)  ;  Day,  ''Experience  of  the  Dutch  with  Tropi- 
cal Labor,"'  in  Yale  Review,  IX,  61  ff'.,  on  Dekker's 
''Max  Havelaar"). 

7.  ''Domination    from   without    tends   to  suppress    infra- 

social  exploitations." 

8.  "Clandestine    exploitation    outlasts    open    exploitation 

and  superstition  and  fraud  are  fused  as  props  after 
force  has  ceased  to  be  available." 

9.  "Opportunities  for  clandestine  exploitation  multiply  as 

social  relations  become  more  involved  and  co-operation 
more  complex  and  far-reaching"  (see  Jenks,  Report 
on  English  and  Dutch  Colonies,  143). 

REFERENCES. 

Abbott,  Religious  Life  in  America,  127;  Fustel  de  Coulatiges,  Institu- 
tions Pol,  I,  295-309,  463-70  (slight  exploitation  of  Gauls  by  Germans), 
II,  48-57,  276-305  (later  Roman  slavery),  III,  90-91,  240,  IV,  532-83  (ex- 
ploitation when  public  authority  is  weak) ;  Sombart,  Socialism,  108-10 
(class  exploitation)  ;  Kidd,  Social  Evolution.  172-76  (to  be  compared 
with  the  passage  from  Sombart) ;  Clark,  "Labor  Conditions  in  Philip- 
pines," in  Bulletin  of  Bu.  of  Labor,  No.  58,  pp.  870-72  (coolie  contract- 
labor) ;  Jenks,  Report  on  English  and  Butch  Colonies,  3,  4;  Keller,  Ho- 
meric Society.  278-81,  293-94;  Weyl,  "Labor  Conditions  in  Mexico,"  in 
Bulletin  of  Bu.  of  Labor,  No.  38,  pp.  27-30,  49-52;  Dawson,  South  American 
Republics,  II,  64,  242.  249;  Kropotkin,  Mutual  Aid,  200,  230,  236;  Prutz, 
Kulturgeschichte  der  Kreuzziige.  334-35,  327-28;  Ferrero,  Militarism, 
76-78,  127-28,  131,  141-42,  162-63,  296,  144-45,  147-49,  156-57,  212-13,  298-99; 
Die  Grossstadt,  18-19;  Ames,  "Labor  Conditions  in  Porto  Rico,"  in  Bul- 
letin of  Bu.  of  Labor,  No.  34,  p.  386;  Cairnes,  Slave  Poicer.  64-106; 
Ireland,  The  Far  Eastern  Tropics,  173  (exploitation  by  Dutch  East 
India  Company),  111  (oppressive  taxation  in  Malay  States);  articles 
in  Independent.  1902,  1903,  on  exploitation  of  Philippines;  Hopkins, 
India.  222;  Strong,  Social  Progress:  A  Y ear-Book  (1904),  on  Latin 
Americ?,n  politics;  Munro,  Mediaeval  Civilization,  39-46  (tax-dodgers 
of  4th  century)  ;  Dill,  Roman  Society  in  Last  Century  of  Western  Em- 
pire, 218-31;  Kent,  I,  183,  198,  III,  chaps,  ii,  iv;  Hildebrand,  39-42, 
145-52;  Wallace,  Malay  Archipelago.  I,  276-87  (how  the  Rajah  took  the 
census),  307-308,  453-56,  143,  149-50",  II,  6-8;  Hobson,  Imperialism, 
228-37,  253-54,  260-304;  Cambridge  Mod.  Hist.  Ill,  77,  passim:  Johnson, 
Exploitation  of  Colonies;  Waltmann,  Politische  Anthropologic.  196-99. 


62  GENERAL  SOCIOLOGY. 

Section  XVIII.     Domination    and    Forcible    Assimilation. 

I.  Nature  of  Forcible  Assimilation. 

1.  Its  differentiation  froin  exploitation. 

2.  Its  varying  motives. 
a.  Openly  selfish. 

6.  Ostensibly  beneficent  (see  Natives  of  South  Africa). 

3.  Its  methods. 

a.  Direct  or  indirect. 
&.  Coercive  or  attractive. 

II.  Forms  of  Domination  or  Forcible  Assimilation. 

1.  Of  parents   over  children    (Hearn,  Aryan  Household, 

91-93,  97;  Howard,  Matrimonial  Institutions,  I,  chap, 
i,  and  the  literature  there  cited). 

2.  Of  men  over  women  (Caird,  Morality  of  Marriage,  41- 

50,  92-97,  193-211;  Gulick,  Evolution  of  the  Japanese, 
55-56;  Keller,  Homeric  Society,  220-21;  Payne,  II, 
8-9;  Howard,  as  above  cited). 

3.  Of  the  patriarch  or  chief  over  members  of  house,  clan, 

or  tribe  (Payne,  America,  II,  37-38;  Hildebrand, 
Recht  und  Sitte;  Kent,  Hist,  of  the  Hebrew  People,  I, 
183;  I  Samuel,  viii,  11-18). 

4.  Of  the  fighting  class  over  the  industrial    (Payne,   II, 

20-22,  36-37;  Kropotkin,  Mutual  Aid,  162-63;' Gulick, 
53-58;  Fustel  de  Coulanges,  Transformation,  683-89; 
Salter,  The  Neio  Militarism  (1899),  93-4). 

5.  Of  conquerors  over  the  conquered  (Bryce,  Studies,  I,  9, 

13,  14,  26;  Die  Grossstadt,  9-13;  Jenks,  Report  on 
Eng.  and  Dutch  Colonies,  136-37;  Keller,  Ho- 
mei'ic  Society,  248  fif. ;  Hopkins,  India  Old  and  New, 
222,  225,  247-48,  290-92). 

6.  Of  the  stronger  ally,  person,  class,  or  people  over  the 

weaker  (Bryce.  Studies,  I,  1-9;  Greef,  in  A.  J.  S., 
X,  657;  Keller,  248  ff . ;  Giddings,  in  A.  J.  S.,  X,  173). 

7.  Of  the  state  over  subjects  (Keller,  248  ff.). 

III.  Examples  of  the  Forcible  Assimilation  of  Peoples. 

1.  Hebrew  example  (Biggs,  Hist,  of  Jeivish  People,  chap. 

ii;  Book  of  Maccabees) . 

2.  Roman   example    (Arnold.    Provincial  Administration, 

7-39,  1.34,  passim:  Renan,  Y,  189  ff.). 

3.  Indian  tribal  example:  forcible  assimilation  for  tribute 

(Payne,  II,  2,  3).^ 


THE  SOCIAL   PROCESSES.  63 

4.  Russian  examples. 
a.  Case  of  Poland. 
6.  Case  of  Finland. 

c.  Case  of  the  Jews. 

d.  Case   of   Georgia    (Ular,    ''Revival    of   Georgia,"    in 

Contcmp.  Review  (1905),  LXXXVIII,  21-35). 

5.  German  examples. 
a.  Case  of  Alsace. 

&.  Case  of  Denmark  (Warming,  ''The  North  Schleswie 
Question,"  in  A.  J.  8.,  VIII,  289-335). 

6.  American  examples. 

a.  Case  of  the  Indians. 

6.  Case  of  the  Filipinos  (Clark,  "Labor  Conditions  in 
the  Philippines,"  in  Bulletin  of  Bureau  of  Labor, 
No.  58,  799-800,  passim). 

c.  Case  of  the  Hawaiians  (Commissioner  of  Labor,  "Re- 
port on  Hawaii,"  in  Bulletin  of  Bureau  of  Labor 
(1903),  No.  47,  pp.  791-94). 

REFERENCES. 

Keller,  Homeric  Society,  220-21,  248-49  (domination),  278-81,  293-94 
(exploitation);  Hobson,  Imperialism.  307;  Jenks,  Report  on  Eng.  and 
Dutch  Colonies,  318-21,  passion;  Novicow,  Les  Luttes,  125-53,  especially 
130;  Kropotkin,  Mutual  Aid,  162-63, 166-67,  200,  220-21,  226-27,  230,  235-36; 
Schmoller,  Grundriss  der  allgemeinen  Volkswirthschaftslehre.  Part  II, 
544-49;  Bryce,  Studies  in  Hist,  and  Jurisprudence,  I,  9,  13,  14,  26-30, 
56-57,  78-81,  286-90.  II,  16-19,  235;  Zenker,  Die  Gesellschaft.  I,  156-65, 
176-77,  102-25;  Gumplowicz,  Outlines.  116-27,  150-53;  Hogarth,  Nearer 
East,  265;  Hopkins,  India,  222,  225,  247-48,  290-92,  Kovalewski,  Modern 
Customs,  100,  passim;  Blackie,  Scottish  Highlanders,  39-40;  Fustel  de 
Coulanges,  Institutions,  I,  63;  Menu,  chap,  v,  sees.  147-151,  154-57,  161, 
168;  Strong,  Social  Progress.  199;  Cambridge  Mod.  History.  II,  138,  176, 
III,  487-88,  504-5,  542-43,  537,  610. 


Section  XIX.     Opposition  :  References. 

I.  General  References  (Simmel,  Sociology  of  Conflict,  in  A.  J. 
S.,  IX  (1903-4),  490-525.  072-89,  798-811,  especially  511-12; 
Roberts,  Anthracite  Coal  Communities,  37,  38,  88;  Cooley, 
Human  Nature  and  the  Social  Order,  232-82,  especially  235- 
39,  254;  Small,  General  Sociology,  38.3-84;  Renan,  People  of 
Israel,  V,  193-94;  Schmoller,  Grundriss,  Part  II,  496-558; 
Milioukov,  Essai,  224-25,  275-77;  Bagehot,  Physics  and  Poli- 
tics (on  "The  Uses  of  Conflict")  ;  Zenker,  Die  Gesellschaft, 


64  GENERAL  SOCIOLOGY. 

II,    102-104;    Xovicow,    Les    Uittes,    13-17,    438-45,    331-34, 
453-59;  Tarde,  L'Opposition  Universelle,  1  &.,  301  fif). 

II.  Class  Struggle  (Sclimoller,  II,  542;  Fustel  de  Coulanges, 
Institutions,  I,  27,  31,  36,  III,  92-95,  240,  IV,  579,  630-31, 
634-35,  682;  Hildebrand,  Recht  und  Sitte,  89-94;  Maine,  Lec- 
tures on  Early  Hist,  of  Institutions,  151,  158 ;  Seebohm,  Eng. 
Village  Community,  321;  Schaper,  '^Sectionalism  in  South 
Carolina,"  429-34;  Clark,  Lahor  Conditions  in  Australia,  15- 
16;  '^Natural  History  of  Party,"  in  Yale  Review,  May,  1893, 
pp.  74-82;  Ross,  Foundations,  272-90;  or  the  same  in  Quar- 
terly Journal  of  Economics,  XVI,  549-62;  Kriehn.  '<Eng. 
Popular  Uprisings,"  in  American  Hist.  Ass.,  Report,  1893, 
pp.  151-61;  idem,  Eng.  Rising  in  U50  (Strassbuig,  1892)  ; 
Riggs,  Hist,  of  Jewish  People,  109-29  (strife  of  Pharisees 
and  Sadducees)  ;  Ensor,  Mod.  Socialism,  10-11, 114-34, 168-69 ; 
Bryce,  Studies,  I,  179-82,  238-39;  Strong,  Social  Progress, 
1904,  pp.  194,  197-99 ;  Pearson,  National  Life,  51-54 ;  Brooks 
Adams,  in  Bigelow,  Centralization  and  the  Law  (1906),  Lec- 
tures, I,  II;  Waltmann,  Politische  Anthropolgie,  194;  Die 
Grossstadt,  2^,28-29). 

III.  Competition  (Mills,  The  Struggle  for  Existence  (1904)  ; 
Seligman,  Principles  of  Economics,  139-52,  139  (bibliog- 
raphy) ;  Cooley,  Human  Nature,  232-61,  especially  257; 
Ward,  Dynamic  Sociology,  I,  573,  594,  II,  578;  idem.  Pure 
Sociology,  175,  489,  511,  551,  568;  Dealey  and  Ward,  87,  299; 
Giddings,  Principles,  136,  399). 

IV.  Emulation  (Cooley,  Human  Nature,  262-82). 

Section  XX.     Stratification  :  References. 

I.  General  References  (Payne,  America,  II,  68,  24-34;  Kropot- 
kin,  M^ltual  Aid,  135,  155-57,  218,  220,  289  91;  Waltmann, 
chap,  vii,  194-211,  179-86;  Guerrero,  Genesis  del  Crimen  en 
Mexico;  Moran,  "Ethics  of  Wealth,"  in  A.  J.  S.,  VI,  824-27 ; 
Vincent,  in  A.  J.  S.,  IX,  741,  749,  753;  Hopkins,  India,  172, 
333;  Eleutheropolis,  Soziologie,  86-90;  Grosscup,  in  Mc- 
Clur&s  (Feb.,  1905),  on  corporate  ownership;  Allen.  ''Sanita- 
tion and  Social  Progress,"  in  A.  J.  S.,  VIII;  Cairnes,  Slave 
Power,  chaps,  ii,  iii,  v;  Veblen,  "The  Barbarian  Status  of 
Women,"  in  A.  J.  S.,  IV;  Gumplowicz,  Outlines.  132-36, 
163-65;  Simmel,  Sociale  Differenzierung ;  Munro,  Mediaeval 


THE  SOCIAL   PROCESSES.  65 

Civilization,  29-30;  Addams,  Democracy  and  Social  Ethics, 
147-49,  168;  idem,  Newer  Ideals  of  Peace;  Spencer,  Profes- 
sional Institutions ;  Kovalewsky,  124,  125,  14G;  Ghent,  Mass 
and  Class,  chaps,  iii.  iv. 

IT.  Differentiation  (Ross,  Foundations,  Index  at  "Differentia- 
tion"; Addams,  Democracy  and  Social  Ethics,  14-19,  31-32, 
G3-G4,  115-lG,  122,  147-49,  167-75,  207 ;  Abbott,  Religious  Life, 
350;  Fiistel  de  Coulanges,  Institutions,  I,  9-15,  306,  225,  277- 
78,  II,  15-18,  145-49,  253-59,  293,  289-90,  300-302,  324-28,  344, 
450-52,  454-58,  III,  17-24,  230-31,  IV,  62,  64,  66,  339,  466; 
Kent,  History  of  Eelreio  People,  I,  91,  196-200;  Milioukov, 
Essads,  228-36,  259-65,  267-68;  Kropotkin,  Mutual  Aid,  139, 
218;  ISleio  York  Lahor  Bulletin  (1905),  on  "Judicial  Deci- 
sions Relating  to  Labor,"  184;  McMaster,  Social  and  Indus- 
trial Rights  (Western  Reserve  Chapter  D.  A.  R.,  1903),  33- 
35;  Wejl,  "Labor  Conditions  in  Mexico,"  in  Bulletin  of 
Bureau  of  Lahor  (1902),  No.  38,  pp.  17-18;  Clark,  "Labor 
Conditions  in  Australia,"  in  Bulletin  of  Bureau  of  Labor 
(1905),  Xo.  56,  pp.  11-12;  Munro,  Mediaeval  CiviUvation,  20- 
21;  Keller,  Homeric  Society,  97-99,  145-49,  181-85,  260-62, 
267-269,  277-78;  Hobson,  Imperialism.,  140-42;  Schaper,  "Sec- 
tionalism in  South  Carolina,"  277-80;  Decugis,  in  Revue  Int. 
de  Sociologie  (1894),  II,  508;  Kovalewsky,  Mod.  Customs, 
104,  99-100,  124-125,  146;  Dill,  Roman  Society  in  the  Last 
Century  of  the  Western  Empire,  126-27,  161-66.  190,  194,  211- 
16,  218-25;  Vincent,  in  A.  J.  S.,  IX,  741-42;  Gulick,  Evolu- 
tion of  the  Japanese,  53-56,  120-21,  165-66,  259,  275 ;  Riggs, 
Hist,  of  Jeicish  People,  II,  117,  227;  Bryce,  Studies,  I,  3,  67- 
70,  256-57,  264-65,  269,  282-8G,  II,  19 ;  Bagehot,  Physics  and 
Politics,  143-44;  Seeck,  Untergangs,  I,  3,  32-35;  Gubernatis, 
"Social  Clases  in  Italy,"  in  Atlantic,  XCIV  (1904),  322-33; 
Seebohm,  Greek  TriMl  Society,  102-106,  114-20,  122; 
Schmoller,  Grnndriss,  Part  III,  546-47;  Niehoer,  364-87,  405- 
408;  Zenker,  Die  GesellscJiaft,  I,  174-76,  II,  110-117;  Hilde- 
brand,  Recht  und  Sitte,  38-39,  42,  81-82,  89-91,  93,  126-127, 
145-52;  Hopkins,  India,  184,  186;  Ghent,  Mass  and  Class. 
chap,  iii;  Joyce,  Social  History  of  Anc.  Ireland,  I,  chap,  v, 
192-95,  222-23,  237-40,  440-51,  459-63 ;  Kelley,  Government  or 
Human  Evolution,  335-60;  Blackmar,  Elements,  299-309; 
Dobschutz,  Christian  Life  in  the  Priinitive  CJmrch,  189-90, 

5 


^6  GENERAL  SOCIOLOGY. 

206,  242,  281-82,  285-8G;  Arnold,  Provincial  Administration, 
111 ;  Giddiugs,  in  A.  J.  S.,  X,  173 ;  idem,  Inductive  Sociology, 
235-45;  idem,  Desc.  and  Hist.  Soc,  526  ff.,  186  ff.;  idem, 
Principles,  71  ff.,  124  ff. ;  Ward,  Outlines,  262-93 ;  idem,  Ap- 
plied Sociology  (1906)  ;  idem,  ''Social  Differentiation  and 
Social  Integration,"  in  A.  J.  S.,  VIII,  721-45 :  from  Annales 
de  rinstitut  Internat.  de  Sociologie,  IX. 

III.  Gradation  (Keller,  Homeric  Society,  97-99,  269;  Clark, 
''Labor  Conditions  in  the  Philippines,"  in  Bulletin  of 
Bureau  of  Lalor  (1905),  No.  58,  p.  724;  Addams,  Democ- 
racy and  Social  Ethics,  115-16,  122;  Abbott^  Religious  Life, 
119 ;  Fustel  de  Coulanges,  Institutions,  I,  264-67,  542-46,  553- 
54,  II,  278-88,  especially  I,  Book  II,  chaps,  xiii,  xiv,  xs^  .Ro- 
man ranks  and  classes)  ;  Gulick,  55-6,  120-21,  165,  375;  Nie- 
boer,  405-408;  Dill.  op.  cit..  161,  163,  337;  Joyce,  I,  459-63; 
Schaper,  "Sectionalism  in  South  Carolina,"  271-76;  Keasbey, 
"Prestige  Value,"  in  Quarterly  Journal  of  Economics,  XVII, 
461-70 ;  Smith,  .Kinship  and  Marriage,  52 ;  Wallace,  Malay 
Archipelago,  I,  344;  Jhering,  Evolution  of  the  Aryan,  64-65. 
158-62;  Simmel,  "Superiority  and  Subordination,"  in  A.  J. 
/8'.,  II,  167-89,  392-415). 

IV.  Segration  (Fayaiit,  "There  Effort  is  Bound  by  C;iste- 
Fetters,"  in  Success  (Aug.,  1903),  451-52;  Vincent,  in  A.  J. 
S.,  IX,  753-54;  Dill,  op.  cit.,  214;  Ames,  "Labor  Conditions  in 
Porto  Rico,"  in  Bulletin  of  the  Bureau  of  Labor  (1901),  No, 
54,  pp.  379-80;  Gulick,  259;  Waltmann,  199-203,  206,  209, 
279-80;  Roberts,  Anthracite  Coal  Communities,  23;  Ross, 
Foundations,  46,  136-37,  273). 

V.  Subordination  (Seeliger,  Bedentung  der  Grmidherrschaft 
im  Mittelalter,  Part  I ;  Commissioner  of  Labor,  "Report  on 
Hawaii,"  in  Bulletin  of  the  Bureau  of  Labor,  No.  47,  y)p. 
680-96;  Weyl,  "Labor  Conditions  in  Mexico,"  in  Bulletin  of 
the  Bureail  of  Labor  (1902),  No.  38,  pp.  42-44,  76;  Clark, 
"Labor  Conditions  in  Philippines,"  in  Bidlctin  of  the  Bureau 
of  Labor  (1905),  No.  58,  pp.  775-84;  Fustel  de  Coulanges.  In- 
stitutions, I,  9-15,  145-49,  300-301,  III  17-24,  204-205,  321-25, 
244-47,  411-12,  IV,  615,  670-89;  Joyce,  I,  195;  Milioukov, 
258-68;  Dill,  op.  cit.,  219;  Keller,  267;  McMaster,  op.  cit.,  17, 
35,  64-65;  Blackie,  Scottish  Highlanders,  32,  48,  70,  136-37). 


SELECT  BIBLOGRAPHY. 

I.     Bibliographies. 

Beck,    Hermann      (editor).      Bibliographie     der     Socialwissenchaften. 

Dresden,  1906. 
Blackmar,  Frank  W.    The  Elements  of  Sociology.    References  appended 

to  each  chapter. 
Dealey,  James  Quayle,  and  Ward,  Ltester  Frank.     A  Text-Book  of  Soci- 
ology.    A  "Bibliography,"  pp.  xix-xxv;  and  referetices  appended  to 

each  chapter. 
Fairbanks,  Arthur.    Introduction  to  Sociology.    A  "Bibliography,"  295- 

307. 
Giddings,  Franklin  Henry.     The  Principles  of  Sociology.     A  classified 

bibliography    under    title    of   "A   Partial   List    of    the    Books    and 

Articles  referred  to   in  the  Text,"  423-44. 
Ross,  Edward  Alsworth.     Social  Control.     "Partial  List  of  Authorities 

Cited,"    443-48. 

jpotmdations  of  Sociology.    "Bibliography"  to  "Recent  Tenden- 
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1-26  (separate  pagination  at  end  of  volume).  III,  612-33. 
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Psychic  Factors  of  Civilization.     "List  of  Authprs  and  their 

Works,"  333-52. 

Applied  Sociology.     "List  of  Authors  and  Titles  of  Works," 


341-66. 

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II.     Source-Books  and  Re^vders. 

Carver,  Thomas  Nixon.     Sociology  and  Social  Progress:    A  Handbook 
for  Students  of  Sociology.    Boston,  1906. 

Giddings,  Franklin  Henry.    Readings  in  Descriptive  and  Historical  So- 
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(67) 


68  GENERAL  SOCIOLOGY, 

III.  Texts  and  Outlines. 

1,  Books  Recommended  for  Continuous  Reading  to  Supple- 
ment the  Lecture  Course  on  the  '"Sylla'bus." 

Dealey,  James  Quayle,  and  Ward,  Frank  Lester.  A  Text-Book  of  Soci- 
ology.   New  York,  1905. 

Ross,  Edward  Alsworth.     Foundations  of  Sociology.     New  York,  1905. 

Ward,  Lester  Frank.  Applied  Sociology.  A  Treatise  on  the  Conscioiis 
Improvement  of  Society.  Boston,  New  York,  Chicago,  and  Lon- 
don, 1906. 

2.  Other  Availahle  Texts  and  Outlines. 
Blackmar,  Prank  W.    TJie  Elements  of  Sociology.    New  York,  1905. 
Fairbanks,  Arthur.    Introduction  to  Sociology.    3d  ed.    New  York,  1900. 
Giddings,  Franklin  Henry.     TJie  Elements  of  Sociology.     New  York, 

1898;  repritited,  1904. 
Small,  Albion  W.,   and   Vincent,   George  E.     An  Introduction  to   the 

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Stuckenberg,  J.  H.  W.     Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Sociology.     New 

York,  1898. 
Wright,  Carroll  D.     Outlines  of  Practical  Sociology.    New  York. 

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American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science.  Annals,  1890-1907. 
30  vols.     Philadelphia,  1890-1907. 

American  Social  Science  Association.  Journal  of  Social  Science.  33 
vols.     New  York,   1869-95. 

American  Journal  of  Sociology.  13  vols.  Chicago  and  New  York,  1895- 
1907. 

American  Sociological  Society.  Publications,  I.  Chicago  and  New 
York,  1907. 

Annee   Sociologique.      Published   under   the   direction   of   Emile  Durk- 

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Bureau    of   American    Ethnology.      Reports,    1879-1903.      24    numbers. 

Washington,  1881-1907. 

Bureau  of  Labor,  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor.  Bulletins, 
Numbers  1-70    (to  May,  1907).     Washington,  —1907. 

Bureau  of  Labor,  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor.  Reports.  20 
numbers    (to  1905).     Washington,  — 1907. 

Bureau  of  Labor,  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor.  Special  Re- 
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Political  Science  Quarterly,  1886-1907.     22  vols.     New  York,  1886-1907. 

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15  vols     Paris,  1893-1907. 
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Bouvier,  Lampierre  E.    De  I'influence  de  milieu  physique  sur  le  devel- 
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Coste,  A.     Les  principes  d'une  sociologie  objective.     Paris,  1899. 

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Fouillee,  Alfred.     La  science  sociale   contemporaine.     Paris,  1885;    2d 
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3d  ed.,  1905. 

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Hagar,  Frank  M.  The  American  Family.  A  Sociological  Problem. 
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6 


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I 


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VI.  Partial  List  of  the  Miscellaneous  Works  Cited  in  the 

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